DOCUMENT RESUME
ED 265 158
SP 027 182
AUTHOR
TITLE
INSTITUTION
SPONS AGENCY
PUB DATE
CONTRACT
NOTE
PUB TYPE
EDRS PRICE
DESCRIPTORS
Pascarelli, Joseph T.; And Others
Educational Leadership Through Proactive Planning.
Pathways to Growth.
Northwest Regional Educational Lab., Portland,
Oreg.
National Inst, of Education (ED), Washington, DC.
Nov 85
400-83-0005
54p.; For the other documents in this set, see SP 027
183-184.
Reports - Descriptive (141) — Guides - Non-Classroom
Use (055)
MF01/PC03 Plus Postage.
Decision Making; ^Educational Administration;
♦Leadership Responsibility; *Long Range Planning;
Management Systems; ^Organizational Objectives
IDENTIFIERS *k>roactive Planning
ABSTRACT
A model of proactive planning is presented in this
paper which incorporates the latest research findings related to: (1)
environmental scanning (external); (2) long-range planning
(internal); (3) strategic planning; and (4) educational management.
Proactive planning as it occurs in the private sector is analyzed and
valuable lessons which can be learned by educational leaders are
underscored. The focus of the paper is on creating a vision as a
leader's first role, followed by attracting people who can help
realize that vision and share responsibility for achieving it. This
document is one of three publications making v.p the Pathways to
Growth series, designed to assist school leaders in planning and
implementing organizational growth in the schools. (LR)
* Reproductions supplied by EDRS are the best that can be made
* from the original dociunent.
******* ************it****1cii**1e***1e**t:1c*********lc***1c**ic****lc**lcii**1t**1c*
EDOCATIONAL LEADERSHIP THROUGH
PROACTIVE PLANNING
by
Joseph T. Pascarelli^ Ed.D.
James Carnes
and
Leslie Crohn
Prepared for the Northwest Regional Exchange
Director: Joseph T. Pascarelli
Northwest Regional Educational Laboratory
300 Southwest Sixth Avenue
Portland, Oregon 97204
(503) 248-6800
November 1985
The work upon which this publication- is based was performed pursuant to
Contract 400-83-0005 of the National Institute of Education* It does
not, however, necessarily reflect the views of that agency.
All wn have the stars r but they are not the
sane things for different people. For somef
vrbo are travelers, the stars are guides.
For others, they are no more than little
lights in the sky. For scholars, they are
problems. But all these stars are silent.
You—and you alone— Iwill] have the stars as
no one elae has them...
Antoine de Saint-Exupery
The Little Prince
ERLC
CONTBHTS
Page
PREFACE i
I. INTRODUCTION , 1
Roots and Resistances of Traditional Planning 2
Long-Range Planning and Its Limitation 4
Strategic Planning . . • 5
II. K»ACnVE PLANNING 18
Strategic Planning in the Private Sector 21
Shared Values 23 "
Creating a Vision 23
Using Clues from External Environments 24
Proactive Planning for Educational Leaders 25
Proactive Planning for the Schools 26
III. SUCCESSFUL PRACTICES IN STRATEGIC PLANNING 28
IV. PROACTIVE PLANNING: SURVIVAL SKILL FOR
EDUCATIONAL LEADERS 38
V» REFERENCES 41
ERJC 6
PREFACE
As a way of addressing the rich variety of educational themes energing
throughout the Northwest region, the Northwest Regional Exchange has been
producing a collection of knowledge synthesis products over the past
several years. These publications have served to sunmarize the most
current and salient literature and research findings on a nuntoer of
topi::s particularly relevant to educators in Oregon, Washington, Montana,
Idaho ^ Alaska, and Hawaii. These publications, produced at the Northrest
Regional Educational Laboratory include, in part:
Global Education; State of the Art (1983)
Designing Excellence in Secondary Vocational Education (1983)
Tward Excellence; Student and Teacher Behaviors as Predictors
of School Success (1983)
The Call for School Refo rm (1983)
State Level Goverance; Agenda for New Business or Old? (1983)
Providing Effective Technical Assistance in Educational
Settings (1983)
Equitable Schooling Opportunity in a Multicultural Milieu (1983)
•Pathways to Grcwth" represents a ne# direction for us. Three distinct
yet interrelated topics are combined to form a set of materials which,
when viewed as a unit, offer the greatest potential for assisting policy
makers, administrators, and other school personnel as they go about the
process of organizational growth, or as some would say, as they go about
4
the process of school i»prove»ent. The Materials in "Pathways to Growth"
include :
The Expanding Role of the Teacher; A Synthesis of Practice
and Research
This paper looks at the ways in which the role of the teacher is
expanding in schools across the country. The authors present
the reasons behind such changes in the roles and
responsibilities assigned to teachers and describe places where
teachers are actually carrying out these expanded role». The
knowledge base which answers the question "Why expand the
teacher's role?" is synthesized and 5iaplications are drawn for
future operation of schools, school '?lstrict8, and othfer
educational agencies.
Fulfilling the Promise; A Fresh Look at Collaboration and
Resource Sharing in Education
Three crucial factors which have inhibited past school
improvement efforts are analyzed in this paper. These factors
include; (1) promising more than can be delivered; (2) failing
to effectively deal with the reality of limited resources; and
3) failing to recognize and initiate opportunities for
collaboration and resource sharing. The paper specifically
focuses on the promise of the third factor — collaboration and
resource sharing — to illustrate its tremendous potential for
improving the quality of education for America's youth. Three
case studies of comprehensive, successful collaiborative
arrangements serve as illustrations.
ERLC
a 8
4
Bducatlonal Leadership Through Proactive Planning
A aodel of proactive planning is presented in this paper which
incorporates the latest research findings related to:
(1) environmental scanning (external)? (2) long-range planning
(internal); (3) strategic planning? and (4) educational
Banagenent. Proactive planning as it occurs in the private
sector is analyzed and valuable lessons which can be learned by
educational leaders are underscored. The focus of the paper is
on creating a vision as a leader's first role, followed by
attracting people who can help realize that vision and share
responsibility for achieving it.
These materials represent a sweep of emerging, dynamic, and "cutting
edge" topics. The research bases are, as yet, unformed and incomplete.
Therefore, the emphasis throughout the three products is on successful
practices, success models, and case studies. We anticipate that these
practices will beccwae the core foundation of future research studies.
Joseph T. Pascarelli
November 1985
ERLC
iii
4
I. INTRODUCTION
All too often, organizational planning is a flat, mechanistic, and
technical activity that begins and, in rost cases, ends at an annual
management retreat. In many insttiwces, an organizational mission, along
with five to nine, broad*based goals ^ emerges froa a combination of
on-the-spot impressions, closely-guarded vested interests, and
too-limited views of the internal world of the organization that is
locked in the present time frame. Following the retreat, individual
units or departments cften break down these goals into a collection of
discrete objectives and tasks that presumably become the bases for making
decisions about staffing, programs, facilities, staff development, and
budgets. The result: the production of a massive document that is made
up of loosely-related detailed plans. At best, such plans are used by
those who monitor task accomplishment rather than by all organizational
levels as a basis for aligning and realigning action to fit changing
conditions. A survey (Cohen and March, 1974) of educational
administrators regarding the linkage between their organizational plans
and current decisions, results in the identification of four patterns of
responses :
(1) "Yes, ve have a plan, it is used for capital project and
physical locaticsn decisions."
(2) "Yes, we have a plan. Here it is. It was made during the
administration of our last president. We are working on a new
one. "
(3) "No. We do not have a plan. We should. We are working on one."
(4) "I think there's a plan around here someplace. Miss Jones, do
we have a copy of our comprehensive ten-year plan?"
10
This condition need not continue. As a result of examining the knowledge
bases in plarining, elements of a proactive model have been identified.
Hhen integrated with current planning approaches in organizational
settings, ve believe these elements yield a process that is more organic
and dynamic in nature. Planning can become a shared adventure in
organizational renewal, a process that binds an organization together to
renw its sense of cowtitmentr and perhaps most significantly, to reduce
the risks and uncertainties associated with the future.
Roots and Resistances of Traditioral Planning
Far will argue with the idea that an effective planning process is the
hallmark of a successful organization. Yet consideratfle resistance to
planning continues to exist in educational agencies as planning is viewed
as an additional, unnecessary, and distracting process that gets in the
way of improvement efforts. Some of this resistance can be traced back
to the Mergence of school planning in the 1960s.
Emanating from programs sponsored by the Departments of Defense and
Agriculture, organizational planning quickly because part of the structure
of the educational state and federal categoricaL programs (Hartley,
1968). The language and tone of th^se programs were rooted in the jargon
of program budgeting and performance measurement, both qualitative and
quantitative. As a result, the plan itself became the goal of an
organization and fundamentally served to pleaso an outside assessor
rather than being a practical working tool to guide the organization in
accomplishing its v?rk.
1972s
This led to nisunder^tatidings, the use of inappropriate processes, and
finally, resistance (Knexevich, 1973), For one thing, those affected by
the planning process were not involved in the setting of goals and
objectives. Further, goals were too lofty and vague for constituents to
take seriously. Closed, top-down, goal-setting processes were used. And
finally, objectives were set at* such finite levels that words like
measurable, observable, and demonstrable became meaningless in the world
of application. Even in the best of cases, where planning helped local
improvement efforts by identifying a need for change, the natural
resistance to change surfaced. Finally, traditional planning failed to
consider or adjust to changes in an orgwization's external environment
such as reductions in staff, changing student populatims, staff turnover
or lack of, and results of forecasting efforts. In short, planning
emanated as an imposed, top-down means to formulate a systenwide
philosoj*y, general goals, and instructional objectives primarily for the
purposes of accountability (Hartley, 1968). And in some cases, these
panning means were legislated. One example of this situation occurred
in the state of New Jersey with the implementation of the Thorough and
Efficient legislation and the requirement that every school district
develop districtwide goals, conduct a formeO. needs assessment process,
and be monitored for. purposes of accountability. This type of legislated
planning occurred again in California with the development of the School
improvement Program in which districts had to address deficiencies
identified in a needs assessment program.
12
Lonci-Ranqe Planning and Its Limitation
Moat educational enterprises are engaged in long-range planning which
tends to focxxB on the final blueprint of a plan and organizational goals
and objectives five years from now. One obvious benefit of long-range
planning is that it looks beyond the present and attempts to project by
using such techniques as forecuting or futures scenarios* usually
organized as a separate and distinct function however, long-range
planning stresses internal analysis • By applying quantitative methods,
attention is given to such factors as internal resource and staff
requirements over the neXv. five years. Usually, an organizational
mission is identified along with priorities and long-range program
additions and/or deletions.
One key limitation of long-range planning is that it holds an inside-out
perspective. That is, its pivotal base is the organization and the
present. Long-range planning tends not to include, on a systematic
basis, information about the changing external environment, but rather,
bases planning on information learned from the past and inmediate
present. Thus, xong-range planning is not cast in the future (for .
example, taking trends, shifts, etc., into account) Long-range planning
addresses four fundamental questions which in themselves speak to sound
planning issues but are grounded in the here and now as a starting point
for growth. These fundzunentad questions include (Morrison and Renfro,
1984) :
(1) Where is the organization now? (needs assessment)
(2) Wiere is it going? (forecasting)
1972s 4 23
(3) Where does it want to go? (goal-setting)
( 4) Ifhat does it have to do to change where it is going to where it
wants to go? (change process or action plan)
More specifically, long-range planning can viewed as a continuing and
cyclical process:
The long-range planning cycle begins by MONITORING
selected trends o£ interest to the organization,
FORECASTING the future of those trends normally based
on extrapolation from historical data (using
regression or other techniques), SETTING
ORGANIZATIONAL GOALS in response to these forecasts,
IMPLEMENTING operational plws based on these goals,
and MONITORING the effect of these plems on those
selected trends and issues (Morrison and Renfro, 1984) •
While these eleronts reflect sound planning processes, they roust be
merged with other elements found in the research on strategic planning to
enhance the capability of organizations to plan more effectively in a
changing world.
Strategic Planning
While long-range planning may be viewed as an "inside-cut" and
operational planning process, strategic planning starts with a vision and
is at once cast in a frame of reference that enables organizations to
identify desired conditions first. Thus, strategic planning moves
trad^.tional and long-range planning off dead center (the present) and
aims to exploit the new and different opportunities of tomorrow, in
oontrart to long-range planning, which tries to optimize for tomorrow the
trendte of today (Drucker, 1980). With strategic planning, current and
projected trends are used to make current and not future decisions. In
light of environmental considerations, strategic planning makes explicit
what the organization will have to do to accomplish its purposes.
ERIC
1972s
14
4
We can further contrast long-range and strategic plemning by looking at
their respected timelines: long-range planning assunes a closed system
within which short-range, five-to-ten year blueprints are constructed,
whereas strategic planning assumes an open system whereby organizations
must constantly change as they integrate information from turbulent
environments (Cope, 1981). As a result, long-range planning focuses on
the final blueprint of a plan, while strategic planning focuses on the
process of planning. Figure 1 on the next page illustrates the contrasts
between these two planning approaches.
One definition of strategic planning states that it is "the process of
developing and maintaining a strategic fit between the organization and
its changing marketing oE?>or tun i ties" (Murphy, 1981). Strategic
planning, then, is an "organ izationwide process that anticipates the
futurer and culminates in statements of intention that match strengths
with opportunities and the management of threats" (Morrison and Renfro,
1884). In other words, with strategic planning, organizations can look
toward the prcAable future to reach decisions and then cast those
decisions into an overall institutional strategy (Keller, 1983).
Ingram (1985) states that strategic planning is a process for:
(1) Identifying the purpose or mission of an organization
(2) Recognizing internal and external factors that do or can affect
the organization
(3) Analyzing those factors to determine the effects they do or will
have on the organization's ability to accomplish its mission
1972s 6 15
Figure 1
Characteristics of Long-range Planning
Contrasted to Characteristics of Strategic Planning
Long-Range Planning
Trends of today are used to plan
for tomorrow.
A closed system is assumed.
Short-ranger five-to-ten year
blueprints are constructed.
The focus is on a final blueprint
of a plan.
The focus is on internal analysis —
applying quantitative fornulas
and models for the development and
distribution of resources.
Existing data are used to project
future plans.
Tie emphasis is on the science of
management, planning and decision
making.
A scientific process is ^ployed »
using detailed and interrelated
data sets, agency plans, and
extrapolations of current budgets.
Strategic Planning
New and different opportunities of
tomorrow are exploited.
An open system is assumed.
Plans are constantly modified as new
information from changing environ-
ments is integrated.
The focus is on the process of
planning.
The focus is on the external envi-
ronment and judgmental decisions —
applying qualitative information for
resource commitments.
Current and projected trends are
used to make current (not future)
decis ions.
The emphasis is on changes outside
the organization, such as vadues,
governmental actions, and what
other agencies and organizations
are likely to do.
An intuitive, creative process of
decision making is employed, to
determine how to guide the organiz-
ation over time in a turbulent
environment.
(Adapted from Morrisc»i and Renfro, 1984.)
1972s 7 16
(4) Developing strategies (a game plan) for dealing with them
( S) Instituting action plans to carry out those strategies and
achieve the mission
The research delineates five major elements of strategic planningj
(1) esteUdlishing a vision; (2) external scanning; (3) internal analysis;
(4) establishing a mission; and (5) developing goals. Each of these is
discussed in the following.
ERLC
Blement Mo. 1; Bstablishing a vision
Although not identified as a primary element in most models of strategic
planning, we feel this element, which is more attitudinal in nature, is
also crucial. Establishing a vision is a proactive stance taken by
organizational leaders who begin by sharing their dreams related to the
future goals, activities, and accomplishments of the organization.
Establishing a vision occurs when managers ask such questions eis "Where
do we want to be?," "What do we want to look like?," and "How can we
create our future?" In other words, establishing a vision involves an
organization in self-examination and is, therefore, less analytical and
more anticipatory amd stimulating. Establishing a vision involves:
(1) Creating a focus, to keep an organization on track
(2) Articulating intentions and calling people into the organization
(3) Committing oneself as a leader at the head of an organization
(4) Taking risks and motivating others to follow
(5} Establishing confidence among employees that they are capable
and a valuable asset to the organization
(6) Hotivating and moving people into action
(7) Discovering possibilities, reading signs of coming change,
exploring ways to prepare for the future
(8) Leading an organization with zest, enthusiasm, and energy
1972s 8 17
Ble—nt Wo> 2: Scanning the Bnvlroiuiftnt
The second element in strategic planning has to do with identifying the
social, political, econc^ic, and educationeiL forces in the environment so
the organization can "fit in" or "mesh" with the external context.
Environmental scanning helps managers align the organization; that is,
environmental scanning helps managers identify the external factors that
do or can affect the organization and then analyze those factors as they
do or will affect the organization's ability to accomplish its mission.
In education, environmental scanning has to do with looking at the
effects of such conditions as fewer teachers, increasing or decreasing
student populations, public demand for a better trained work force,
reduced parental involvement with the schools, population shifts, and so
on. Environmental scanning raises three basic questions (Murphy, 1981):
(1) Hhat are the major trends in the environment?
(2) What are the implications of these trends for the organization?
(3) What are the most significant opportunities and threats?
The purpose of environmental scanning is to develop a picture of the roost
significant external factors that will affect an organization and around
which that organization will formulate its future goals, strategies,
structures, and systems. Environmental scanning is not futuring, nor is
it developing future scenarios. It involves the study of certain shifts
in the external world, such as the following:
( 1) Pram centralization to decentralization
( 2) Prom basic skills to higher order teaching skills
( 3) Pron analysis to synthesis
( 4) Pro« cultivating permanence to cultivating iraperroanence
' 18
( 5} From autonony to synergy
( 6) Prom free standing or independent structures to interactive
structures
( 7) From mechanistic to organic
( 8) From linear to dyneunic
( 9) Fro© top-down to participating
(10) From uniformity to diversity
Put another way^ enviromnental scanning identifies:
(1) Economic trends such as those which have to do with worker
productivity^ employment, and technology
(2) Social trends such as those which have to do with demographic
shifts, and changes in the family unit
(3) Personal trends such as those which have to do with greater
demands for sensitivity and interpersonal skills
(4) Political trends such as those which have to do with public
support, or lack of support, for bond issues; the decreasing
role of the government at state and local levels
One way to deal with these types of trends is through a threat and
opportunity analysis (Muri^y, 1981). Murphy defines an environmental
threat thusly: "•••a challenge posed by an unfavorable trend or specific
disturbance in the environment that would lead, in the absence of
^rposeful action, to the stagnation, decline, or demise of an
organization or one of its programs." Since not all threats are of the
same magnitude, they will not demand the same action. Murphy (1981)
notes that school administrators should assess each threat according to
tao dimensions: (1) the severity of the threat (measured by how much it
would cost the organization in terms of money or prestige; and (2) the
probability that the threat will actually occur.
1972»
10 19
Murphy (1981) suggests that an opportunity analysis can be aora important
than threat analysis to an organization. In carrying out a threat
analysis, an organization can maintain status quo, but it will not move
forward. In contrast, carrying out an opportunity analysis allows an
organization to move ahead and take risks. Murphy (1981) defines an
opportunity analysis thusly: ■;..an attractive area of relevant action
in which a particular organization is likely to enjoy superior
competitive advantages." Further, Murphy contends, m opportunity can be
assessed on two dimensions: (1) the potential attractiveness of the
opportunity (measured by how much the organization might profit from the
opportunity; and (2) the probability that the organization can
successfully take advantage of the opportunity.
To sum, environmental scanning differs from the comprehensive, analytical
process most organ izatiwis are familiar with. Managers who are
successful at scemning the environment to determine future and current
trends, are able to identify those external factors that can dramatically
affect the organization. They are then able to analyze those factors in
terms of har they will affect the organization's ability to accomplish
its mission.
Element Mo. 3; Internal Resource Analysis
The third element in the strategic planning process has to do with
identifying the strengths and weaknesses of an organization, and follows
the environmental analysis. Some might call this step an "internal
audit." This type of analysis studies the current situation of an
organization in terms of available resources; that is, the analysis looks
at staffing, student needs, resource allocation, staff and administrative
evaluation data, facilitating coosnunity support groups, student
achievement data, program offerings, organizational and management
structures and so on. Murphy (1981) relates this internal resource
analyzing element to his overall process of strategic planning in
Figure 2, shown on the next page*
19728
21
12
Figure 2: Strategic Planning Process Model
Bnviconm»ntaI Analyaia
^ Internal environment
• Market environment
• Competitive environment|^
• Publ ic . env ir onmen t
• Mac roenvir onmen t
(Threat & Opportunity
Analys is)
Resource Analysis
• Personal
• Funds
• Facilities
(Strengths & Weaknesses
Analysis)
(5oal Formulation
• Mission
• Objectives
• Goals
Strategy Formulation
• Academic Portfolio
Strategy
• Product Market
Opportunity
Strategy
Organization Design
• Organization
• People
• Culture
Systems Design
• Information
• Planning
• Control
Source: Murphy, Patrick E. 'Strategic Planning for Higher Education,
Journal of Higher Education ^ Vol. 52, No. 5, 1981.
er|c
^9818
22
23
13
ERIC
The critical aspect of this eleitent is that it is present-oriented* It
answers the questions "What do we have going for us?" and •W^at are we
lacking or weak in?" In evaluating their strengths and weaknesses,
adninistrators should not rely exclusively on their own perceptions, but
rather, should initiate an iaage study of hew the organization is
perceived by its significant publics, such as students, parents, business
and industry, and others* The findings of this type of study may reveal
that the organization has certain strengths and weaknesses it nay not
even be aiare of* The study may also reveal that administrators have
placed too great an enp^,)asis on sone strengths or weaknesses or
exaggerated others — perceptions the various publics nay not share.
Kleaent Ho* 4: Identifying the Mission
So far in the strategic planning process, a vision has been established
from the external and internal analyses Administrators are now in a
position to articulate the mission of the organization, out of which will
come the goals (Element Ho. 5)* Murphy (1981) contends that a useful way
for school administrators to examine their mission is for th^ to answer
the following questions:
(1) What is our business?
(2) Who is the customer?
(3) What is our value to the customer?
(4) What will our business be?
{ 5) What should our business be?
Answering such questions may appear simple and obvious, yet school
administrators often find them to be among the toughest questions they
24
19728 • 14
have to face. Successful administrators are those who continuously ask
and answer these questions thoughtfully and thoroughly (Murphy, 1981) •
Responses to such questions result in a statement of mission for the
organization, which identifies the design and purpose of that
organization. The statement of mission also determines how resources
will be allocated to different and changing demands. In this sense, the
mission statement is the "glue" of the organization as it keeps
organization members from floundering — searching for a common and binding
theme.
It's important to note that statements of mission are not designed to
"express concrete ends, but rather, to provide motivation, general
direction, an image, a tone, or a philosophy to guide the enterprise"
(Steiner, 1979). In all cases, developing statements of mission must
include the direct involvement of top management.
Many statements of mission developed by organizations are somewhat vague
in nature. Hcvever, this can be seen as a virtue as vagueness allows for
flexibility in a changing environment. Most important, all statements of
mission must be written and communicated widely to individuals and groups
in the community.
Finally, statements of mission help to crystallize a school or district's
focus? they contribute to the overall effectiveness of an educational
organization by leading to the next element in the strategic planning
process — the development of goals.
ERIC 25
BBBMB ^^^^^ , IS. .
Bltacnt no. 5t Goal fbrilation
The enviroweent and resource analyses provide school administrators with
necessary background and stimulus to develop basic organizational goals
and objectives. Though the goals »ay be clear during the formative years
of the organization, they will need to be reassessed and reviewed as
environmental conditions change. A review of organizational goals can
satisfy school leaders that the goa^ i are still clear, relevant, and
effective (Murphy, 1981).
The importance of goals to an organization is that they help create a
clear and realistic picture about the nature and function of that
organization and its future. Goals also help school leaders set
priorities and directions; develop appropriate plana; set standards for
performance; and develop procedures for evala^ting the results.
Therefore, goals set the standard whereby school leaders are able to
plan, control, and monitor activities.
Murphy (1981) notes that the issue of organizational goals breaks into
two distinct steps: (1) dete raining what the current goals are; and (2)
determining what the goals should be. Individuals and groups within an
organization will bring diverse perspectives to the formulation of goals,
baaed primarily on their roles and responsibilities. For instance, a
curriculum director may see as a major goal the upgrading of curriculum
scope and sequence; the principal may see as a major goal the addition of
more science and math teachers; and a district superintendent may see as
a major goal decreased costs of education. Therefore, continuous review
and revision of goals requires the involvement of many individuals and
groups tx> determine thsir unique perceptions. Such Insights are not only
ERIC 26
iB^aa 19728 16
valuable, but the goals are more likely to be embraced and supported
because of group involvement in the process (Murphy^ 1981) •
After organisational goals have been determined and agreed upon, the next
steps in the planning process are the establishment of objectives and the
development of action plans. These stages are direct outgrowths of
long-range planning rather than unique to strategic planning. Hovever,
the elements identified in the preceding discussion are those which are
key to the strategic planning process, and give shape to the proactive
and continuous nature of planning.
A major difference between the long-range planning process and the
strategic planning process is that strategic planning is more flexible
and adaptive and allows for the testing of ideas. Strategic planning
allcws for the continuous adaptation to changes in the environment.
Strategic planning is a highly interactive process. It includes routine
scanning of the literature, practices, and trends; continuous surveying
of a variety of groups for information and attitudes; and frequent
analyzing of the organization's level of fitness to be relevant and
responsive. In short, strategic planning goes a step further than
long-range planning by allowing the organization to become active in
shaping its future.
Figure 3 on the next page displays one strategic planning model for
school systems taking technical and human dimensions into account.
•1972s
Figure 3
A Strategic Planning Model for School Syateas
Technical Di»enaion
Huaan Diaenaion
Key Stepa
Key Questions
Determining the Functions
and Scope of Schools
Who are our clients?
What are their needs, wants?
What business are we in? (To what do we allocate
resources?)
Catalytic force for change
Leadership
Situation Analysis
Who is competing for resources?
Who is the educational competition?
Group processes
Planning AsBumptions
What economic, social, and technological trends are
likely to prevail over the next five to ten years?
What trends in education are likely to affect the
public schools?
Collaborative problem
solving and decision
making
Planning Contingencies
What resources are likely to be available to schools?
What positive forces are likely to exist?
What constraints or negative forces are likely to exist?
Maintenance of momentum,
direction, climate
Planning Objectives
Row can schools respond more effectively to the needs
of clients within the context of environmental
factorSf assumptions, and contingencies?
How can productivity be improved?
Mechanisms for management of
relationships, conflict
strategies
What steps should be taken now, or later r to respond
to the questions in the above section?
Personal and organizational
understanding of, and
commitment to, the
strategic plan
Resources Required
What resources are needed now? Later? In what
amounts? Ho^ allocated
Monitoring and Evaluation
iX r — : rz rTTT '
Do assumptions remain operant? Contingencies?
Are objectives still relevant?
Are strategies still productive?
Is resource allocation adequate and/or appropriately
distributed?
ERJC liuqugt 1984 r pp. 6-8.
"What Business Are We In?* The School Administrator.
11. PBOhCnVE PLMWIHG
Once the educational leader has a clear understanding of what strategic
planning is, and is not, it becoaes apparent that an important dijiension
is missing. As professionals, educational leaders bring to their roles
additional complexities. The traditional description of strategic
planning^ as an overlap of long«*range planning and environmental
scanning, falls short of describing the activities that must occur if
educational leaders are to make use of that model. When educational
management activities are overlaid on the strategic planning model, the
result is a more relevant and encoeqpassing model which can more
appropriately be called PROACTIVE PIANHI196.
While strategic plans might be described in terms of roadmaps with fixed
pathways to specific, destinations, a sailing metaphor better describes
proactive planning:
The educational leader, as captain of the sailing vessel, chooses a
destination and plots a course on the ship's charts. Once under sail,
however, the captain must constantly make adjustments to sea currents,
changing winds, the ebb and flow of the tides, and other conditions that
may affect the course of the ship. The captain is at once reactive and
proactive. The captain realizes the present set of conditions, and is
aware of the anticipated conditions; therefore, the captain makes
adjustments in the rigging of the sails and the angle of the tiller in
response to existing requiranents, but never loses sight of the ultimate
19728
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18
destination and the projected conditions to which adjustments are made.
The actual path of the sailing vessel may have only a general resemblance
to the charted course. Hcirever, the destination is reached.
It is because of the proactive nature of the planning^ with its
concomitant allowance for continuous adjustments according to existing
and projected conditions, that the captain is able to finally arrive at
the chosen destination. Without belaboring the metaphor, suffice it to
say that many is the day that educational leaders may find themselves in
turbulent waters, unable to rely on their charted courses, but able to
make necessary adjustments to keep their organizations moving toward
their destinations only because proactive planning heis allowed them to do
so.
• Strategic planning is not new to the educational leader. In the
military, sports, and businera the concept has been applied for years.
What makes it important for educational leaders to consider at this time
is the acknowledgement that our society is changing from an industrial
base to an information base, and that we cannot continue to ignore
existing conditions, nor anticipated conditions. Through proactive
planning, educational leaders can address the future with confidence and
a sense of professionalism as illustrated on the next page (Figure 4) .
31
1972s
I
Figure 4
PROACnVB PURNING IS • • •
• Action plans based on professional judgments of
educational leaders
• Planning before necessity requires it
e Plans of action built on positive responses to
anticipated requirements
• Plans designed to su^rt the education of students for
the future
• An ongoing process by which educational leaders adjust
"proactive managaMent* to changing conditions'
• A projection of future external and internal influences
on the educational system
• A forward-looking planning system which allows the future
to haj^n for the institution, not to the institution
1972s 20 32 ^0
strategic planning is like trying to walk on water to reach the
destination on the other side of the river; proactive planning, in
contrast, is knowing where the stepping stones are. For the educational
leader, proactive planning requires bringing the science and art of
proactive educational mnageioent to bur upon the strategic plans o£ the
school district. It requires the judicious use of intuition,
professional judgment, understanding of the humanness o£ the enterprise,
and idealism. Strategic planning requires the simultaneous application
o£ the principles o£ proactive management in the planning and operation
of the schools. Through proactive planning and management, educational
STRATBGIC PLMiNIWG PI THE PRIVATE SECTOR
Some valuable lessons can be learned by educational leaders from the
private sector experiences with strategic planning and related activities.
The military metephor implied in strategic planning limits our ability to
think about management sensibly, according to Peters and
Waterman (1982) in citing Karl Weik's conclusions:
First, the use o£ the military metephor assumes that
someone clearly wins and someone else clearly
loses. In business, this is usually not the case.
Second, ffeik argues that the militery metephor is a
bad choice because people solve problems by analogy,
and as long as they use the military analogue, "It
£orces people to entertein a very limited set of
solutions to solve ^ny problem and a very limited
set of ways to organize themselves."
While planning is important, care must be teken not to overdo it. A
frequent sign of planning abuse is "paralysis by analysis". Some chief
executive officers of major corporations suggest that once the plan is
leadership becomes holistic.
ERIC
21 33
1972s
developed, that plan should be put on the shelf, not to be used for
decision making purposes, but to recognize change as it takes place.
Horever, these sane CEOs recognize that it is essential to at least
commit the plan to paper.
One of the most striking observations of excellent companies is that they
appear to "do their way into strategies, not vice versa." According to
James Brian Quinn, a leading researcher of the strategic process, this
means the role of a leader is one of labeler and orch^strator, of shaping
actions, usually after the fact, into lasting commitment to a nmn
strategic direction. In other words, excellent CQmp2mies act, then
develop their goals and targets.
Peters and Waterman (1982) believe that the major reason big companies
stop innovating is due to their dependence on a number of mismanagements
like rigid strategic direction setting. Thus, some of the big companies
forget hov to learn and quit tolerating mistakes:
The experimenting process is almost t evolutionary.
It values action above planning, doing above
thinking, the concrete above the abstract. It
suggests, in a very Zen-like fashion, going with the
flcv: doable [ aid tasks, starting with the easiest
and most ready targets, looking for malleable
champions rather than recalcitrant naysayers.
"Strategic" is an overused word that has become an automatic modifier to
planning. However, it does convey an important idea in the <Aange
process— deliberate and conscious articulation of a direction. Strong
leaders articulate direction, and create a vision of a possible future
that allows them and others to knew which actions will lead to the gocls
(Kanter, 1983} •
ERIC 34
W72S ^,,22, . _ ^- . .
SBARgP VM,aBS
A fai key values can drive an organization to excellence, especially when
employees are given the autonomy to take initiatives in support of those
values. Autonomy is a product of discipline. The discipline (a fei#
shared values) provides the framework. Discipline gives people
confidence (to experiment, for Instance) stemming from stable *
expectations about what reaaiy counts (Peters and Waterman, 1982).
Companies that do focus on a few key business values have less need for
daily instructions. Their values are clear, and they are acted out at
all levels of the organization. It is not merely the articulation of
those values, but their content which makes it clear whao the company
stands for. This is the role of the leader: clarifying the value system
and breathing life into it.
In successful companies there is a balance between individual effort on
the one hand and teawork on the other. A large company cannot succeed
if each division goes off entirely on its own; there must be some
team^^ork among divisions (Ouchi, 1984). It is obvious that excellent
companies seem to have developed cultures that have incorporated the
values and practices of the great leaders. Those shared values have
survived long after the passing of the original leader. Therefore, it
appears that the real role of the chief executive is to manage the values
of the organization.
CREATING A VISION
Creating a vision for the organization is the leader's first role,
followed by attracting people who can help realize that vision by
er|c oc,
vaa^ 1972s 23. 35
adopting the vision as their oun and sharing responsibility for achieving
it.
The following list characterizes the concept of vision as Naisbitt and
♦
Abut dene (1985) allude to it in Re-inventing the Corporation:
• The leader who would create a vision sufficiently compelling to
motivate associates to superior performances must drw on the
intuitive mind.
• Successful leaders are concerm^rd not with "doing things right" but
with "doing the right thing."
• Alignment transforms a leader's vision into a shared corporate
vision.
• The only way to translate vision and alignment into people's
day-to-day behavior is by grounding these lofty concepts in the
ccHnpany's day-to-day environment.
• Alignment exists when there is a fit, a meshing between the
company's goals and the individual's.
• Hhen you identii^ with your company's purpose, when you experience
Ofnership in a shared vision, you find yourself doing your life's
work instead of just doing time.
• When there is a synergistic relationship between your goals and
the conpany's, your power to achieve personal goals is amyiified
by the corporation.
• Vision is the link between dream and action.
P8IHG CLUBS rROM ETTEBMhL KNVIRDWMgHTS
While long-range planning is basically responsive to the conditions
within the organization, the addition of environmental scanning of
external conditions which effect the organization produces strategic
planning.
In excellent companies, customers have input into every aspect of the
business. The excellent companies really are close to their customers.
Other companies talk about it, but excellent companies do it (Peters and
I
Waterman, 1982). This external focus Mkes these companies extremely
sensitive to the environment and more able to adapt than the
oompetition. In other words, innovative companies are adroit at making
continuous responses to changes of any sort in their environments.
By listening to their cus tome rs and responding to the external
environments, the excellent companies are inviting the customers into the
company — a mutual partnership is the result.
Ibgether with the need to scan the external environmeats whi<A affect the
corporation, effective managers are recognizing that they must trust
their guts more often in making key business decisions. Intuition is
becoming increasingly valuable in the new information society because so
many data are available.
James MacGregor Burns (1978) has posited another, less frequently
occurring form of leadership, something which he calls "transforming
leader ship'*~leader ship that builds on a person's need for meaning;
leadership that creates institutional purpose. Burns sees the
transforming leader as someone who is also the mentor, the linguist, the
value shaper, the exemplar, and the maker of meanings. The
transformational leader, according to Burns, has a tougher job than the
transactional leader, as the transformational leader is the true artist
and the true pathfinder.
PROACa^IVg PLMWIWG FOR EDPCATTOHAL LEADERS
Why do educational leaders need to be proactive planners? Naisbitt and
Aburdene, in Re-Inventing the Corporation (1985), discuss the trends that
ERIC
1972s
25
37
are influencing the future of American education* They suggest that
today's educational system was never meant to serve the needs of today's
information society^ but rather^ was explicitly designed to fit the
industrial society, a tine when "it made sense to treat everyone the
same" (Naisbitt and Aburdene, 1985). Further, Haisbitt and Aburdene warn
that to continue the type of education developed during the Industrial
Age is to ill-equip young people to function in the Information Age.
These authors note that the most creative educators and schools are those
who are "experimenting with new mnj^ls, grouping for the new ways and new
arrangements that make sense now." They go on to say, "Once we accept the
challenge of re-inventing education, we are free to stop justifying our
failures and move ahead to the creative part, which asks, 'Where do I go
from here?'" (Naisbitt and Aburdene, 1985).
PROACnVB PLAMNING FOR THB SCHOOLS
Proactive planning is not a prescription or formula, it is a management
style. As Ingram (1985) says, "It (strategic planning! is a process for
being proactive and not allowing the people in an organization to view
themselves as victims. It is what good coaches do in devising a system
and building a team that can win; what outstanding musical conductors do
in building and training a great orchestra; what reliable admirals and
generals do in figuring out how to win a war; what scientists do in order
to put a man or woman on the moon; and what successful business people do
in making a profit."
Proactive plauining is what educational leaders must do to develop a
syst^ of education for the future that is responsive to the needs of the
new students of the information age. It begins not where we are, but
^.^^ 19728 26 38 ' '
with a vision of where we want to be; a vision of what education should
be like.
School districts gust visualize where they want to be, what they want to
look like, set out to identify the social, political, economic and
educational forces in their environnents, and establish a plan to control
and manage those factors in terms of achieving their goals (Ingram, 1985).
Public sector institutions such as sdiools face unique problems that make
strategic planning efforts more challenging than in the private sector.
According to Duckworth and Rranyik (1984) , major problems schools Mist
face include politics, lack of leadership continuity, and constantly
changing public demands for services based on special interests. Other
problems as discussed by Duckworth and Rranyik (1984) include those that
stem from the nature of teaching and learning as well as difficulties in
defining priority learning outcomes and their subsequent evaluation.
The case for proactive planning is strengthened by all these factors.
Without proactive planning, external forces that affect school systems
are dealt with randomly, rather than in an interconnected, holistic way.
1972s 27 39
ERIC
111. SaCOSSSFDL PRACTICES IN STRATEGIC FLANHIHG
Strategic planning approaches are increasingly found in educational
organizations. In this section, we briefly present sone of these
aK>roachesr including two school districts, a community college in
Albany, Oregon, and a group of colleges in the state of California.
Jefferson County Public Schools in Lakewood, Colorado, has been actively
using strategic planning processes for over a year and a half. Oie
assistant superintendent described the strategic planning process as a
way of thinking; that is, he noted that it is imbedded in the processes
of problem solving. Strategic planning in the Jefferson County school
system has helped the district clari^ its mission and goals and become
more skilled in the processes of ongoing change. The goal is to assist
members of the scdiool system to think mDre strategically, thereby making
the orgmization more responsive to changing conditions.
A similar pioneering effort is underway in Detroit Public Schools where a
shift has beei made from decentralization to recentralization. An
underlying motive for the shift, according to one assistant
superintendent, is to move Detroit from a reactive position into a more
proactive position. District staff began the.ir work by searching the
literature for models of strategic planning currently found in other
organizations? however, few mDdels were found that directly related to
long-range planning in a large urban school district. Therefore, for the
most part, Detroit had to devise its own system.
1972» 28 40
The district is currently Midhiay in their efforts to develop a general
direction, broad goal sUtements, and a workable plan* lb date, the
district has completed the following (Dronka, 1985): (1) scanned
external factors on national, state, and local levels; (2) analyzed the
school system's internal status (finances, personnel, student profiles,
and so on); (3) produced a key stakeholder's .report from surveys,
meetings, and interviews with parents, cooamunity groups, students, school
staff m^ers, board members, and the business community; and (4) formed
a 12-member planning team comprised of the superintendent and top
advisers. At a November, 1984, retreat, the planning team sifted through
the data, drafted a mission statement, and set five district goals.
The next step in the strategic planning process is arK>ther retreat
planned with the board of education to solicit their feedback on
accomplishments to date. This retreat will be followed by another at
which time district goals will be finalized and measurable objectives
will be developed. The plan is scheduled for completion during the
summer of 1986.
At Linn-Benton Community College (LBCC) in Albany, Oregon, a strategic
planning process has been incorporated as part of overall managerial
functions of that institution. The LBCC approach differs somewhat from
the traditional long-range planning models typically used in educational
organizations.
Educational leaders at IBCC recognized that planning was a necessary part
of management and therefore divided it into special areas such as
facilities, construction, financial, and instruction and curriculum.
which includes staffing and nanagement staffing with prescribed
functions, LBCC chose to avoid the pitfall of developing a long-range
plan as the culmination of the work of a oownittee (or full-time planner)
which is then not used because the plan becomes outdated as conditions
change. i£CC officials decided that it was imperative to use planning
techniques which would stabilize a quality communiti' college in a highly
unstable environment. They chose strategic planning as a process for
management to consider when faced with planning for the future.
Strategic planning or decision making at LBCC incorporates an analysis of
the external environment ard focuses on keeping the institution in step
with the changing environment. It requires a careful inward review of
the campus and x review of the outside world.
IBCC management developed a strategic plan using a set of planning
assumptions which formed the basis for future refinement and review by a
Blue RibbOT Citizen Comaittee and the Institution Advisory Council, In
addition to this plan, information compiled by a market research
consultant and additional statistical information was used to assist in
formulating strategic decisions with respect to the future of LBCC. A
comprehensive review of the role and mission of IBCC was accomplished and
a review of the instructional program was completed.
The IfiCC strategic planning process used input and information from a
variety of sources both internal and external to the college. According
to Gonzeaes and Thomas (1984), the advisory planning team has the
following primary responsibilities:
• Tb develop a {Strategic plan using community and internal
assessment which translates into an action plan for campus
programs
• To develop ongoing mechanisms for oonmunity involvement in planning
• To develop a financial plan that folloiifs the strategic planning
process
This planning is a collaborative process of four groups: (1) admin-
istrative staff; (2) community advisory council (Blue Ribbon Committee) ;
(3) institutional advisory council; and (4) board planning committee.
The planning process and the work of these committees take place
simultaneously and it is viewed from that perspective. It is not a
step-by-step linear process. The strategic planning process requires
open communication and consensus toward the end result of strengthening
LBCC and providing for its future.
Another approach to strategic planning is found in a group of colleges in
California — San Francisco COTmunity College District, Long Beach City
College, Riverside City College, and the Yosemite Community College
District.
In 1982, the Educational Master Plan Project was launched in San
Francisco Caranunity College District (SFCCD). Now, at the beginning of
1986, this large-scale, complex project in comprehensive strategic
planning is in full operation. The emphasis is on the process of
planning and stemmed from a need by district staff to thoroughly
understand themselves so they could anticipate change and "respond
flexibly and effectively in order to maintain institutional vitality,
quality, and a competitive edge" (Models of Strategic Planning in
Community Colleges, 1983). The focus of the plan was to demonstrate
accountability and document the quality and prod ictivity of college
programs as well as to develop a plan for resource allocation in a
changing and uncertain environment.
The plan has led to extensive statements of mission and goals and the
implementation of a "conprehensive strategic planning process that
flexibly and responsibly connects program review^ budgeting^ and
accreditation processes" (Models of Strategic Planning in Community
Colleges, 1983).
The key assumptions underlying the plan included:
(1) The process of planning would be continuous, systematic, and
cyclic.
(2) The process would be flexible and open to change.
( 3) The process would encourage broad-based participation by all
relevant constituencies in the district to maximize "ownership."
(4) The process would model strategic, comprehensive planning, using
data gathered from the district's external eivironment and from
internal organizational operations.
(5) The process would include future orientation, a stipulated time
frame^ allocation of resources, and top-^level support.
(6) The process would have as an outcome the foundation for making
decisions related to resource/budget allocations, staffs
facilities, educational programs and services, and the future
directions of the district,
(7) The process would include information gathering and
dissemination, program reviar, budgeting and planning and be
integrally interwoven into the organizational life of the
district.
The long Beach City College (LBCC) approach to strategic planning was
geared to opening up communication among several constituencies on
campus, as it was believed that without strong administrative support,
planning cannot work. Rather than appointing one person as a planner.
Ji'.....,-.-..>;.32:w_^.:x„.
44
the approach was to involve a large number of staff in as many roles and
activities as possible. The aim was to develop a continuous system that
would operate smoothly through the five-year review of the Accrediting
Commission and would, therefore, be an ongoing, functioning process.
The key assumptions underlying the plan included:
(1) The process would be ongoing.
(2) The process would encourage open communication.
(3) The process would include a strong commitment from all segments
of the college.
(4) The process would involve planning facilitators working directly
with the various constituencies who woxild make up nine
committees (organized around the nine accreditation standards).
(5) The process would involve the formation of committees with both
horizontal balance (sex, college area, campus division r
ethnicity) and vertical balance (faculty, classified personnel,
managers and students) .
(6) The process would involve five environmental scan teams that
would produce futures assumptions in such areas as lifestyle,
demography, «nployment, public policy, and education.
The result of the LBCX; strategic planning process has been a "^consensus
on perspective" among the leadership of all college constituencies.
Specifically, this leadership basically agrees on the following (Models
of Strategic Planning in Community Colleges, 1983) :
(1) The college is facing a serious fiscal problem.
(2) The world has changed significantly; therefore, colleges cannot
do "business as usual."
(3) A clear direction is necessary for colleges to survive and
preserve their autonomy.
(4) Strong administrative leadership is necessary in the formulation
of a future direction.
9
At Riversid^^ City College (RCC) , a strategic planning process is underway
that focuses on excellence^ pride^ and innovation in a climate that helps
create cohesion. At an annual retreat^ college achievements^ based on
established outcomes, are noted as they relate to creating a positive
climate. The outcoiwes approach establishes targets, gets results, and
keeps ROC on the move (Models of Strategic Planning in Community
Colleges, 1983). The outcomes approach also introduces the concept of
change to the faculty and sets the stage for planning. The attitude at
ROC is one of being "on the mDve," taking risks, and committing resources
to bring these changes about. A document has been developed to assess
the strengths and weaknesses of RCC and to help the college face future
probl^ns. This document is a result of three separate efforts:
(1) strategic planning which includes the institution and its social
environment? (2) procedural planning whidi is within the institution, and
defines what needs to be done to get to where the college wants to be:
and (3) operational planning whi<^ includes immediate steps with the
locus prinmrily in programs.
Key assumptions underlying the RCC planning document include:
(1) The future will be different from the present.
(2) Strategic planning is coherently dynamic, loose, and flexible;
it is not static and must all« an institution to be able to
shift and respond to changing trends.
(3) An institution must take risks.
Strategic planning helped the administrative staff of RCC to determine
what direction the college should take to allow for future circumstances
and to weigh the varions alternative o>urses open to them. Through
strategic planning, administrators were also helped to determine resource
:ERJC
allocation and to establish consensus among the faculty in terns of
college directions and activities.
ROC*s successful approach offers several key concepts which can be useful
to other comunity college planners, regardless of demographic,
employment, or environmental differences (Models of Strategic Planning in
Community Colleges, 1983):
(1) The development of a college th«ne fosters more universal
sentiment and cooperation among the various constituencies in
the college. The idea of sharing a vision of college ideals
also brings about a greater sense of cohesion and mutuality.
(2) Strategic planning is inherently dynamic . It changes with the
changing face of the collegers and conmunity's needs. It must
be flexible and respond to unexpected as well as predictable
trends and events.
(3) In order to grow, a college must be willing to take risks— the
right and desired risks that can enhance the college and prosiote
change both internally and externally.
(4) The college climate is important so that an atmosphere for
change and planning is created and sensed. The college should
be guided by considering "where it is" and "where it wants to
go" in the decades ahead.
The planning process at Yosemite Community College District (YOCD) is now
a way of life. It is an information based budgeting system and begins at
the basic organizational units such as college departments. Strategic
planning at YCCD is participatory and "bottom-up?" it links both planning
and budgetary processes. Crucial to the planning process is an
assessment system which gathers, processes, stores, and reports essential
information. Because it builds on the foundations of the basic
organizational units, the process has potential for involving a broad
range of college and district personnel (Models of Strategic Planning in
Communis Colleges, 1983) .
Impetus for strategic planning at YOCD can be traced to the uncertainties
and problems resulting from Proposition 13 and collective bargaining.
School administrators desired a planning process which would involve
people at all levels and help the district respond more effectively to
crisis situations. Three steps were laid out: (1) to find out what YCCD
is doing and what it should be; (2) to find out what YCCD can, or should,
or ought to do; and (3) to find out hew to close the gap between what is
and what should be. As a result, an assessment program was designed and
iaplemented as well as a planning and budgetary system. Crucial to the
plan were concurrent process goalB whidi included building confidence in
the system, winning support and participation, and alleviating adverse
attitudes .
Underlying assumptions to the YCCD plan included;
{ I) The process should grow slowly, be low key and low profile. *
{ 2) The process should be developed by those who will be directly
served or affected.
{ 3) The process would reflect the literature and data gathered, but
would be invented "at home."
{ 4) The process would involve a number of committees "as small as
possible but as representative as possible."
( 5) The process would not have a time limit, hidden agendas, or
blueprints drawn up in advance to predetermine the outcome.
( 6) The process would have complete, unfaltering commitment from
top management.
{ 7) The process will be continuous, set on a yearly review cycle
and be staged in clear, sequential phases.
{ 8) The process will tie budget requests to operating unit needs,
operations and plans.
{ 9) The process will collect and use information which is timely,
accurate, comprehensive, and uniform and capable of helping
administrators see what is going on in the district.
(10) The process will be an integral part of the overall college and
district decision-aaking process.
At YOCD, inprovenent in the processes and their products is continued, as
experience and data accufflulate. The heavy investnents of time, energy,
and resources during the first years have begun to return numerous and
varied pay-offs. The benefits include improved accuracy in data,
holistic monitoring capabilities, greater openness and candor aiiong
staff, and improved employer and onployee relations.
19728
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37
IV. PBOACnVB PIANMniGt SURVIVAL SKHJ. FOR BDOOkTIOlAI* LEADERS
The aaount of tine devoted to proactive planning is directly proportional
to the level of responsibility an educational leader has within the
organization. In other words^ the higher a leader's position appears on
the organizational charts the more time the leader should spend in the
proactive planning process.
Ingram (198S) notes ^ in referring to the strategic planning process^ that
it is a survival skill for educational leaders^ and therefore^ should
dominate the time and attention of school board members, superintendents,
and top managers in all school districts. Strategic planning is a
powerful tool because it embodies an integrated set of actions that can
improve organis^ation's well-being and strength, relative to its
competitors.
The superintendent, as chief executive officer^ must assume major
responsibility for planning efforts. To be effective in this role, the
superintendent must have a broad perspective of the external environment,
an understanding of planning models and processes^ and understanding and
skill in human relations. Duckworth and Kranylk (1934) also see
proactive planning as a survival skill:
The public education community has an opportunity to
create a bright, new future for the schools of this
nation in the next decade. Hew 1:echnology, new ways
of organizing schools and motivating teachers, and
more favorable economic and social conditions will
help make a quantum leap ahead possible in a social
institution characterized by limited responsiveness
to nm CMditions. Computer-based telecommuni-
cations will revolutionize teaching an^ learning in
•any aspects of the curriculum. The application of
nm human resources concepts concerned with such
areas as reward systems, career opportunities, and
job redefinition, greatly enhance the impact of
teachers, as well as the teaching profession. The
Improving econosy will provide a market for better
educated youth, most of wboai will be employed in
some aspect of the "knowledge" industry.
The greatest challenge facing the schools will be
the need to move from existing curricula,
structures, and societal relationships to new forms
that will secure the role of public education in
America in the decades to come. Clearly, a
proactive stance tovard the future is an essential
ingredient in this effort.
A proactive leader who is responsible for districts and schools to
flourish in the future is a master of change (Kanter, 1983). This leader
must be adept at introducing new procedures and nmt possibilities as
organizations become more responsible to external pressures. This person
encourages and listens to neif ideas from inside the organization, and
tends to focus more on what is not known than on trying to control the
known. The proactive leader is able to rearrange the known, remove
barriers before an external crisis develops, and then steer the
organization by a deliberate and conscious articulation of a direction,
enhanced by the drive to continuously integrate and interconnect.
Strategic planning is a matter of spirit, energy, and vision that makes
up the tool kit of the proactive educational leader. Therefore, the
proactive leader is less interested in developing a step-by-step rational
plan that focuses on the past and the present and is more interested in
"[managing] a set of guiding principles that can help people understand
not hof it should be done but hoc to understand what might fit the
situation they are in" (Kanter, 1983). In essence, the proactive leader
plans the organization's future now by creating larger visions and
engaging people's inaginations in pursuit of those visions.
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and Managing Organizations . San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass
Publishers, 1984.
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Bennis, Warren and Burt Nanus. Leaders; The Strategies for Taking
Charge . New York, NY: Harper and Rov Publishers, 1985.
Capra, Pritzof. The Turning Point . New York, NY: Simon and Schuster,
1982.
Cohen, M. D., and J. G. March. Leadership and Ambiguity: The American
College President . New York, NY: McGraw-Hill, 1974.
Dronka, P. "Likely Future Trends, Information Feedback Guide ASCD*s
Five-Year Plan Development." ASCD Opdate . April, 1985, p. 7.
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York, NY: Harper and Roi, 1973.
Duckworth, Alice and Robert Kranyik. "What Business Are We In?" The
School Admins trator . August 1984, pp. 6-*8.
Baton, Judith. "Building Tomorrow." Paper Presented at the National
Conference of the League for Innovation in the Community, Newport
Beach, CA. October 10-12, 1983.
Ferguson, Marilyn. The Aquarian Conspiracy: Personal and Social
Transformation in the 1980s . Los Angeles, CA: J. P. Tarcher, Inc.,
1980.
Hartley, Harry. Educational Planning-Prograwming-Budgeting . aiglewood
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Ingram, Ruben. "Strategic Planning and Effective School Management: A
Coonnentary." Thrust . January 1985, pp. 15-17.
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1983.
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53
Leeahuis, Jaap P. and John P. Bckblad. "Planning Doesn^t Stop at the
Top,* Training and Developient Journal , Decanbar 1985^ pp. 62-63.
"Models of Strategic Planning in Cowinity Colleges," SacraMnto:
California CoMunity Colleges. Office of the Chancellor. Western
Association of Schools and Colleges ^ Aptos, Ckz Accrediting
Comiission for Consiunity and Junior Colleges, 1983.
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Indicators, Future Studies, and Policy Analysis." Arlington, VA:
Arny Research Institute for the Behavioral and Social Sciences, itov.
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!torrison, Jaaies and Willian Renfro.
Planning Process: implications
Education «" Paper presented at
Association, Hm Orleans, April
Haisbitt, J. and Patricia Aburdene.
York, NY: Warner Books, 1985.
"Futures Research and the Strategic
for Long-Range Planning in Bigher
the Aaerican Bducational Research
23-27, 1984.
Re- inventing the Corporation > New
Ouchi, w. The M-FOrm Society . Reading, MA: Addison Wesley, 1984,
Peters, T. J. and R. H. Waterman. In Sear<A of Excellence . New York:
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