NPS ARCHIVE
1997.
HOWELL, M.
NAVAL POSTGRADUATE SCHOOL
Monterey, California
THESIS
ANALYSIS OF A 3-TIER DISTRIBUTED
ARCHITECTURE FOR THE SECTOR ANTI AIR
WARFARE CENTER
by
Matthew P. Howell
September 1997
Thesis Advisor: Luqi
Associate Advisors: Mantak Shing
Michael Holden
Thesis
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September 1997
3. REPORT TYPE AND DATES COVERED
Master’s Thesis
4. TITLE AND SUBTITLE
Analysis of a 3-Tier Distributed Architecture for the Sector Anti Air Warfare Center
5. FUNDING NUMBERS
6. AUTHOR(S)
Howell, Matthew Peter
7. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION NAME(S) AND ADDRESS(ES)
Naval Postgraduate School
Monterey CA 93943-5000
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11. SUPPLEMENTARY NOTES The views expressed in this thesis are those of the author and do not reflect the official policy or
position of the Department of Defense or the U.S. Government.
12a. DISTRIBUTION/AVAILABILITY STATEMENT Approved for public release;
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13. ABSTRACT (maximum 200 words )
The Marine Air Command and Control System (MA CCS) is composed of a collection of legacy, stovepipe Automated
Information Systems (AIS), each of which contain functionality which is widely duplicated throughout the MACCS. A proposed
alternative architecture, the Common Air Command Control System (CAC2S), would leverage the investment currently being
made in Command, Control, Communications, Computing, and Intelligence (C4I) systems which provide a robust set of functional
services common to a wide range of mission critical applications. A plan for migration from the MACCS architecture to the
CAC2S architecture is a required component for a successful transition.
This thesis describes the messaging and database methodology, the ongoing efforts to identify common data types and
processes, and a proposed three-tier distributed object architecture, which will guide the MACCS migration to the CAC2S. A
Software Engineering tool, the Naval Postgraduate School Computer Aided Prototyping System (CAPS), is used to model a
component of the MACCS, the Sector Anti Air Warfare Center (SAAWC), in an effort to more precisely identify the critical data
type representations and data processing requirements needed to properly specify the CAC2S.
As a result of this effort, a blueprint has been created to describe the methodology and analysis required to effect the
migration from the MACCS architecture to the CAC2S vision.
14. SUBJECT TERMS
CAPS, MACCS, SAAWC, CAC2S, Software Engineering, Rapid Prototyping
15. NUMBER OF PAGES
303
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Approved for public release; distribution is unlimited.
ANALYSIS OF A 3-TIER DISTRIBUTED ARCHITECTURE FOR THE SECTOR
ANTI AIR WARFARE CENTER
Matthew Peter ^Howell
Captain, United States Marine Corps
B.A., University of Michigan, 1987
Submitted in partial fulfillment
of the requirements for the degree of
MASTER OF SCIENCE IN COMPUTER SCIENCE
from the
NAVAL POSTGRADUATE SCHOOL
^\pS /\y<L-V\vvJ£
HoifeU, yv>
ABSTRACT
The Marine Air Command and Control System (MACCS) is composed of a
collection of legacy, stovepipe Automated Information Systems (AIS), each of which
contain functionality which is widely duplicated throughout the MACCS. A proposed
alternative architecture, the Common Air Command Control System (CAC2S), would
leverage the investment currently being made in Command, Control, Communications,
Computing, and Intelligence (C4I) systems which provide a robust set of functional
services common to a wide range of mission critical applications. A plan for migration
from the MACCS architecture to the CAC2S architecture is a required component for a
successful transition.
This thesis describes the messaging and database methodology, the ongoing efforts
to identify common data types and processes, and a proposed three-tier distributed object
architecture, which will guide the MACCS migration to the CAC2S. A Software
Engineering tool, the Naval Postgraduate School Computer Aided Prototyping System
(CAPS), is used to model a component of the MACCS, the Sector Anti Air Warfare
Center (SAAWQ, in an effort to more precisely identify the critical data type
representations and data processing requirements needed to properly specify the CAC2S.
As a result of this effort, a blueprint has been created to describe the methodology
and analysis required to effect the migration from the MACCS architecture to the CAC2S
vision.
v
VI
DUDLEY KNOX LIBRARY
NAVAL POSTGRADUATE SCHOOL
TABLE OF CONTENTS .0, STOREY CA 93943-5107
I. INTRODUCTION .1
A. BACKGROUND 1
B. MOTIVATION 1
1. Messaging 8
2. Database Technology 10
C. GOAL 11
D. SUMMARY OF CHAPTERS 12
n. SURVEY OF C4I ARCHITECTURE 1 3
A. CHAPTER OVERVIEW 13
B. DEFENSE INFORMATION INFRASTRUCTURE COMMON
OPERATING ENVIRONMENT (DII COE) 13
C. GLOBAL COMMAND AND CONTROL SYSTEM (GCCS) 16
D. JOINT MARITIME COMMAND INFORMATION SYSTEM (JMCIS)
’98 18
E. SUMMARY 20
HI. SECTOR ANTI AIR WARFARE CENTER (SAAWC)
FUNCTIONALITY 21
A. CHAPTER OVERVIEW 21
B. SAAWC PROCESSES 22
C. SAAWC DATA TYPES 26
D. PRODUCERS 29
E. CONSUMERS 36
F. SUMMARY 40
vn
IV. PROTOTYPE DESIGN
41
A. CHAPTER OVERVIEW. 41
B. COMPUTER AIDED PROTOTYPING SYSTEM (CAPS) .41
C. PRELIMINARY DESIGNS 42
D. CAPS GRAPHICAL EDITING ...46
1. High-level Prototype Decomposition .46
2. Air Defense System Display Decomposition 55
3. Alert Server 58
4. Broker 60
5 . Communication s S erver 62
6. Correlation Server... 65
7. Data Management Server 67
8. Device Server 69
9. Map Server 7 1
10. Message Server 71
11. Name Server 73
12. Print Server 75
13. Security Server. 77
14. Time Server.. 79
1 5 . Track S erver 79
E. CAPS PROTOTYPE SYSTEM DESCRIPTION LANGUAGE
EDITING 81
F. TRANSLATING AND SCHEDULING 84
G. IMPLEMENTATION 85
H. SUMMARY 86
V. CONCLUSION 87
A. SAAWC PROTOTYPE SIGNIFICANCE 87
B. CAPS PROTOTYPING 88
C. FUTURE WORK 88
vm
APPENDIX A- SAAWC PROTOTYPE SOURCE CODE
91
APPENDIX B: SAAWC MESSAGE SCHEDULE 245
APPENDIX C: ISSUES AND TECHNOLOGIES PERTAINING TO THE
DEVELOPMENT OF TRUSTED PATHS IN A DISTRIBUTED HETEROGENEOUS
NETWORK 263
LIST OF REFERENCES 285
INITIAL DISTRIBUTION LIST
287
X
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1 SAAWC Functional Processes 24
Figure 2. Broker Operator Drawn with xfig 43
Figure 3. Message Flow Table 45
Figure 4. CAPS SAAWC Prototype 47
Figure 5. Air Defense System Display Operator 56
Figure 6. Alert Server Operator 59
Figure 7. Broker Operator 61
Figure 8. Communications Server Operator 63
Figure 9. Correlation Server Operator 66
Figure 10. Data Management Server Operator 68
Figure 11. Device Server Operator 70
Figure 12. Map Server Operator 71
Figure 13. Message Server Operator 72
Figure 14. Name Server Operator 74
Figure 15. Print Server Operator 76
Figure 16. Security Server Operator 78
Figure 17. Time Server Operator... 79
Figure 18. Track Server Operator 80
Figure 19. User-defined Data Type Hierarchy 83
xi
xii
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
The author would like to reserve his deepest gratitude for his wife, Susan, for her
unwavering support while he pursued the goal of completing this thesis. He would also
like to extend heartfelt thanks to his children, Clarissa, Tyler, and Wesley, for their
devotion and enthusiasm, which provided a continuing source of inspiration during the
course of this project. Finally, grateful appreciation is acknowledged to Professor Luqi,
Professor Shing, and CDR Mike Holden for their analysis, guidance, and tireless
contributions to the research and writing of this thesis.
xiii
I. INTRODUCTION
A. BACKGROUND
The Marine Air Command and Control System (MACCS) is composed of
agencies, equipment, and the operating procedures required to provide the Aviation
Combat Element (ACE) commander with the means to command, coordinate, and control
all air operations within an assigned sector, and to coordinate those air operations with
other Services operating in the battlespace. Recognizing the need to migrate from the
current dissimilar, or "stovepipe", command and control (C2) systems prevalent in the
MACCS to an open architecture which is compliant with the Department of Defense
Information Infrastructure Common Operating Environment (DII COE), the Marine Corps
has endorsed a Common Aviation Command and Control System (CAC2S) concept as a
target system architecture. The CAC2S will be required to provide the automated
aviation planning, situational awareness, decision aid, and execution tools currently
available to MACCS operators, but to do so within an architecture which takes full
advantage of the common messaging, database, network, security, and display services
provided by a DII COE compliant Command, Control, Communications, Computers,
Intelligence (C4I) Workstation.
B. MOTIVATION
The MACCS incorporates sensors, controls, weapon systems, and the agencies
which employ these tools to accomplish their doctrinal missions. Common networks
within the MACCS include a number of DOD standard datalink networks and air
1
command and control voice communications networks, all of which contribute to the
development of a common Battlefield Awareness (BA) for a particular air/ground sector.
Previous and current upgrades to the MACCS architecture have consisted of the
incremental upgrading of MACCS components, primarily special purpose processors,
display devices, and communications equipment. These components are required to meet
a limited set of data and programming interface standards in order to ensure continuing
interoperability. This development and fielding methodology has populated the MACCS
inventory with a number of special purpose devices which are functionally sufficient for
completing the MACCS mission, but are expensive to develop, procure, operate and
maintain. Additionally, the common BA developed among MACCS operators working in
the current architecture is constrained by the need to employ multiple "boxes" on the
desktop, essentially "stovepipe" systems, each with a limited capacity for sharing critical
battlespace information with other systems. Finally, MACCS operators must struggle in
the current architecture to overcome the inefficiencies introduced by having to perform
separate but related tasks in a number of different operating environments.
Traditional interpretations of the purpose of the MACCS focus on the goal of
providing a Common Operational Picture (COP) of the Air Battlefield to the MACCS
operator. This operator could be responsible for launching Homing All The Way Killer
(HAWK) missiles, controlling aircraft as they transit certain air sectors, or preparing the
Air Tasking Order (ATO) for the next day's sorties. The principal means for building this
COP, as a means to developing superior BA, has been through the processing of
2
electronic contacts, both passive and active, into tracks, which are then assembled into a
"track file." This track file is then distributed to terminals throughout the MACCS and to
similar air operations and control centers in the other Services. Migration to a CAC2S
architecture, which will use not only traditional sources of information to build BA, but
also electronically generated mail, United States Message Text Format (USMTF)
messages, and archived intelligence records, requires the development of a new concept.
Such a concept could be envisioned as a virtual state machine, which builds BA through
the rapid processing, correlation, storage, and retrieval of Air Battlefield information
developed from both tactical and national resources. Each CAC2S terminal in turn will be
a specific instance of this state machine, an instance which captures that portion of the Air
Battlefield pertinent to that CAC2S operator's tasks.
Though many components of the MACCS, such as the HAWK missile system and
the AN/TPS-59 radar system, will continue to be developed as special purpose computing
systems, much of the functionality within the MACCS is specified for the development of
superior BA to provide an environment in which the most efficient decisions with the
greatest likelihood for success in the battlespace can be made. That is, a great majority of
the tasks required of MACCS operators specify the receipt, processing, and analysis of
information in order to implement decisions which effect the employment of plans,
equipment, and personnel. In examining the migration of the MACCS to the CAC2S it is
necessary to distinguish the components of the MACCS which sense and destroy enemy
objects, such as the AN/TPS-59 radar and the HAWK missile systems, from those which
3
support the decision-making process. Once this distinction has been made, it will become
possible to permit the design of an architecture which supports the vertical development of
special purpose sensors and weapon systems in conjunction with the horizontal
development of a general purpose information systems network which best supports the
development of the MACCS operator's BA. The migration plan must recognize that the
computing problems associated with sensors and weapon systems are different from the
computing problems associated with decision-making tools and aids. The latter problems
are well-researched, well-documented, and have solutions which are widely implemented
in the commercial world. Moreover, within the DOD there is a tremendous amount of
effort currently being devoted to the formulation of a definition of such a general purpose
information systems architecture.
One of the principle benefits of military computing in the information age is to
bring coherency to the COP. The introduction of DII COE Workstations and, in
particular, the Maritime variant of the Global Command and Control System (GCCS), the
Joint Maritime Command Information System (JMCIS), promises to bring to the MACCS
common messages, data types, network communication protocols, display technology,
security, administration, and database services. Implementation of these standards will
significantly enhance the common BA of operators throughout the MACCS, as well as
significantly decrease the costs associated with developing, procuring, fielding,
maintaining, and training operators on new MACCS components. If perfect BA is the
Holy Grail of the warfighter, and computing is certainly integral to that goal, then
4
common, sophisticated messaging and database technology must be the cornerstone of
efforts to migrate legacy computing systems. The MACCS is an ideal candidate for the
mapping of that migration path.
There are two clearly identifiable revolutions in military computing: the first
revolution involved the realization that computing could be used to create abstractions of
real-world concepts, and to manipulate those abstractions in ways which provided
meaning and intelligence to the operator trying to understand the state of the battlefield.
This revolution was realized on special-purpose, embedded systems hardware, and
represented a coherent "system-engineering" approach to the specification, design, and
implementation of these machines and networks. Examples of these manifestations of
special-purpose systems surround us today in the military: the Tactical Digital Link
(TADIL) processors with their associated display subsystems and communication
equipment; the Automated Digital Network (AUTODIN) switching centers with their
associated processing, display, and communication subsystems; the Tactical Receive
Equipment (TREs) with their associated processing, communication, and cryptographic
subsystems.
The second revolution in military computing, and the one in which we currently
find ourselves, came about with the invention and rapid adoption of some key computing
technology and protocols: the tremendously powerful and inexpensive microprocessor
with its associated peripheral devices; and Transport Control Protocol/Intemet Protocol
(TCP/IP), a widely adopted set of internetworking protocols which transcends proprietary
5
network protocols, allowing heterogeneous computers to communicate and truly
distribute processing in powerful ways. The first factor in particular forced computer
scientists to focus less on "system engineering" and more on "software engineering." They
discovered that computing machines and computing networks were rapidly entering the
realm of commodities. General purpose computers and networks became so powerful and
inexpensive that software engineers were forced to modularize their computing
abstractions to take advantage of computing architectures, rather than computing systems.
Three trends have accelerated the movement to implement the computing systems
of the first revolution within the computing architecture of the second revolution:
decreasing amounts of money, increasing redundancy in written program source code, and
decreasing complexity in administering systems. General purpose computers and
networks powerful enough to manage and manipulate the computing abstractions of our
mission critical computing systems are widely available in the commercial sector, and
inexpensive enough to motivate the move away from many special-purpose embedded
systems. Moreover, the software programs and processes required to meet the needs of
many of our mission critical functions, such as messaging, financial management, and
logistical operations, are increasingly available as well in the commercial sector.
The redundancy issue involves the tremendous amount of time and money invested
in creating and maintaining the same computing algorithms, data sets, and objects over
and over again throughout organizations and industries. Recognizing the expense of a
typical line of code, which drives the need to craft reusable code modules with
6
well-designed interfaces, has forced software developers inside and outside of the DOD to
focus on identifying the functionality and required data sets of the target domain, in order
to enable the search for, and acquisition of, existing computing abstractions at a significant
savings over traditional in-house custom-built computing solutions.
Finally, the trend toward decreasing complexity is one in which the complexity of
the computer system, manifested in such computing domain concepts as network
administration, runtime environment configuration, and peripheral device installation and
management, without knowledge of which computing systems cannot be properly
administered and maintained, is evolving toward increasing abstraction of these computing
domain principles and mechanisms. This trend frees the user to focus on the missions and
tasks for which he or she is trained, rather than on mastering the techniques and methods
of operation created by software developers to facilitate the tasks and operations
associated with the development of software systems.
The proceeding discussion is meant to illustrate the following point: we no longer
have either the resources or the incentive to develop special-purpose, embedded
computing systems for all but the most unique and time-critical of our computational
needs. And in order to identify the commodity computing machines, networks, and
software processes which best fulfill our computational needs, it is critical that we identify
that mission essential functionality, and those required data sets, which represent and
describe our targeted operational domains. This paper examines the processes and data
types which embody the required functionality of the Sector Anti Air Warfare Center
7
(SAAWC), itself a subsystem containing much of the functionality exhibited in the
MACCS, The accurate and thorough specification of the processes and data types within
the SAAWC is the critical first step in developing an object-oriented, network-centric,
standards-based, relatively inexpensive, BA system which meets the required functionality
of the USMC, complies with the standards-based environment of the DII COE, and takes
advantage of the key technologies of the second revolution in military computing: virtual
machines, commodity computers and TCP/IP-based networks, distributed object
computing, and object Relational Database Management Systems (RDBMS).
1. Messaging
Computers are particularly useful for two things: messaging and database
operations. Messaging is as old as man himself and often serves as the principle reason
behind success or failure on the corporate and military battlefields. Messaging drives
decisions, which in turn drive actions. Messaging is the principal means for developing
BA. Timely and accurate messaging separates winners and losers, victors and the
vanquished. Messages need not themselves be sophisticated: a simple message identifying
enemy actions at a particular point and place in time can turn a battle. Message
transmission technology need not be sophisticated: a timely phone call, simple e-mail, or
faxed image can convey immediate and pertinent information. What requires a concerted
and orchestrated effort, however, and a sophisticated analysis and design as a preliminary
stage, is the development of a messaging system which defines each message as one of a
finite set of Abstract Data Types (ADT): readable, representable, and redistributable to
8
both humans and computers, and a means for transferring these ADT "objects" rapidly
across distinct but interoperable networks.
It is important that a MACCS to CAC2S migration plan recognizes the
significance of these ADT "objects", which are both the means by which BA is developed
and the means by which tactical, operational, and strategic decisions are implemented. An
aircraft "track", an Air Tasking Order (ATO), and an image of an air defense site do in
fact have more in common with one another than not. It is critical to the success of the
migration plan that the precise computational representations of each of these ADTs be
standardized in order to determine the most appropriate means for their transmission,
reception and routing.
Furthermore, strong consideration should be given to our representation of
abstract events as objects which can exist in a sequence of varying states. For example, an
ADT object which was instantiated as a collection of attributes representing a planned air
sortie could go through a series of modifications in which the object's own methods
modified its state, as a way of indicating the object's transformation from a planned
mission, to an executing mission occupying battlespace and battletime, to a finished
mission with associated attributes which indicate the consequences of the executed
mission. By unifying the conceptual, documented, executing, and historical attributes of a
particular event in time, and by encapsulating within the object the methods which can
direct me transformation of the object in response to real-world activities, we produce
ADTs with properties which facilitate their creation, dissemination, and use within a
9
distributed messaging system.
To illustrate with another example why deliberate analysis of the messaging
process, as it relates to ADTs, is needed, a solution in the CAC2S must be developed to
overcome the current limitations in wireless bandwidth which have been exposed in
current implementations of the TADIL J processing system. That system has been
developed to accomplish the desired refresh rate of the air defense picture through the
periodic transmission of the entire battlespace by means of a "track file", providing static
position and descriptive information which is associated with each individual track. A
more efficient solution uses ADT methods to send messages updating ADT
representations when changes to those representations are triggered. Furthermore, by
treating the air defense picture as a composition of ADTs, current broadcast, multicast,
and subscription messaging methodologies can be implemented to deliver just those ADTs
of interest to a particular given user, reducing the amount of traffic over the TADIL J link.
2. Database Technology
Automated Information Systems provide the capability to store extraordinary
amounts of data, to index in an extensive and thorough manner, and to retrieve data in
powerful ways which will aid BA, problem analysis, and the decision-making process.
Traditional hierarchical database methodologies required the database designer to build a
database schema with a particular "view", or collection of attributes which composed an
entity, in mind. The resulting database schemas purposefully planned for the duplication
of database entries in order to account for the many different views different users might
10
require to the database. Relational database methodologies allow the database designer to
build carefully organized relations between distinct, but related entities, allowing for the
creation of multiple views into the database schema without the accompanying duplication
of database entries.
The MACCS to CAC2S migration plan must include a comprehensive analysis of
the data needs of MACCS operators in order to determine the types of information
required, the relationships between those information types, and the points and places of
replication necessary to permit and enforce the provision of a common BA throughout the
MACCS. Efficient design and implementation of relational database technology will
support the storage, archiving, and retrieval of perishable, time-critical messaging as well
as the provision of encyclopedic data elements or developed information which supports
the decision-making process. Relational database technology is the key to efficiently
processing and presenting to the user the correct and pertinent COP, amidst the multitude
of messages, information, and intelligence which may be available. The migration plan
should seek to identify every decision-making point within the MACCS and to develop a
plan for incorporating relational database technology into that decision-making process.
C. GOAL
There is significant value added in the analysis of data processing requirements and
data flow requirements in the MACCS, by modeling the network nodes and links in the
SAAWC using the Naval Postgraduate School (NPS) Computer Aided Prototyping
System (CAPS). CAPS is used to decompose each of the SAAWC functional
11
requirements into functional operating nodes, then further decomposing them into
common services nodes, and finally, identifying data types and atomic data processing
requirements within the resulting nodes and links. The result is an executable model which
will facilitate the identification of particular information producing, messaging, and
consuming needs and which will suggest a blueprint for the fielding of general purpose
C4I Workstations and general purpose networks to meet those needs.
D. SUMMARY OF CHAPTERS
Chapter II examines the current landscape within the USMC, USN, and DOD with
regard to development of C4I Workstations and general purpose networks. Chapter III
documents an analysis of SAAWC data types and data processing requirements and
provides an illustration of how those requirements might be satisfied by an infrastructure
of common C4I services. Chapter IV describes the design of the SAAWC prototype using
CAPS to decompose the system into a network of data streams and operators. Chapter V
provides conclusions, recommendations, and identifies areas in which further research is
merited.
12
II. SURVEY OF C4I ARCHITECTURE
A. CHAPTER OVERVIEW
This chapter discusses the various initiatives and design decisions published by the
three C4I program offices influencing the development of the CAC2S. These design
decisions represent guidelines and criteria for C4I segment developers, as well as
standards for the provision of testing and assigning ratings which describe the levels of
compliance to the prescribed architecture that developed segments meet. The DII COE
provides a high-level Information Systems (IS) architectural plan for the building of C4I,
Sensor, Weapons, and Combat Support systems. These systems will provide an
operational environment which optimizes the flow of data vertically through the levels of
operation, and horizontally across peer services and agencies. Of the three programs, only
the DII COE is not an actual system. The Global Command and Control System (GCCS)
is a C4I system designed to incorporate core operational, intelligence, and communication
planning and execution functionality, and is intended to be the target architectural
environment for each of the service- specific C4I system variants. The Joint Maritime
Command Information System (JMCIS) is the USN/USMC variant of the GCCS system,
incorporating functionality unique to the maritime character of USN/USMC warfare.
B. DEFENSE INFORMATION INFRASTRUCTURE COMMON
OPERATING ENVIRONMENT (DII COE)
[JOINT95] proposes a concept, C4I for the Warrior (C4IFTW), which calls for the
development of a general purpose architecture in which users at the tactical, operational.
13
and strategic levels work within a common operating environment accessing shared data
pertinent to the prosecution of their particular missions. The C4IFTW vision is articulated
as follows: "The warrior needs a fused, real-time, true picture of the battlespace and the
ability to order, respond and coordinate vertically and horizontally to the degree necessary
to prosecute the mission in that battlespace."
The DC Master Plan is a blueprint for implementing the technical infrastructure,
shared services, and functional applications facilitating interoperability and collaboration
among the DOD Services, Agencies, Office of the Secretary of Defense (OSD), and Joint
Staff in order to accomplish the C4IFTW concept. The DII itself can be described as a
seamless, worldwide, secure, standards-based web of computing hardware, software, and
communication links designed to meet the information processing needs of DOD users in
peace and in time of conflict. The primary purpose of the DII Master Plan is to identify
and document current and future elements of the DII which enable interoperability and
collaboration, define the roles and responsibilities of those falling under the cognizance of
the DII, and to identify and document the relationships among current DII initiatives.
That portion of the DII Master Plan responsible for defining the set of integrated
support services and software development environment for the DII shared technologies is
the DII Common Operating Environment (COE). The DII COE contains the detailed
technical specifications which support the DII architecture in accordance with the
Technical Architecture Framework for Information Management (TAFIM) and DOD Joint
Technical Architecture (JTA). The DII COE is an evolving computer systems
14
architecture, a set of standards designed to take advantage of commercial sector
technology and methodology, and a vision to guide the development of C4I and non-C4I
mission domain computer systems which realize the C4IFTW vision.
The Dll COE defines three layers: Kernel, Infrastructure Services (Data
Exchange), and Common Support Applications. The Kernel includes the computer
operating system and extensions, the common desktop, software install and de-install
tools, security extensions, and printer services. The Infrastructure Services layer, a
horizontal layer, identifies RDBMS servers/clients, Web servers/clients, network
management processes, message profiling, office automation, and PC services. Common
Support Applications, also called vertical market services, include Mapping, Charting,
Geodesy, and Imagery (MCG&I ), communications input and output, message encoding
and decoding, correlation and fusion, and tactical data replication. Mission Applications,
or segments in DII COE terminology, are developed to run on top of these three layers in
accordance with the DII COE Integration & Run Time Specification, which defines the
manner in which an application is to interact with underlying layers and with other, peer,
mission applications. Additionally, this document identifies eight levels of DII COE
compliance which provide a benchmark for judging the qualification of a mission
application in meeting DII COE standards. The D6 directorate, Joint Interoperability and
Engineering Organization (JIEO), within the Defense Information Systems Agency
(DISA), is the cognizant authority for developing and publishing the DII COE and
anticipates major releases of the standard being published every 18 months, with minor
15
releases being published every 6 months. A release schedule is available, on the World
Wide Web, at http://spider.osfl.disa.mil/dii/coe/COEDevel/COEDevelopment.htm.
C. GLOBAL COMMAND AND CONTROL SYSTEM (GCCS)
To use a computer programming metaphor, if the DII COE is the specification for
a "class", then the GCCS is the instantiation of that class, or the object itself. The GCCS
is an actual system, developed to fulfill the C4IFTW vision as it pertains to the functions
of Command, Control, Communications, and Intelligence. The GCCS was originally
conceived as a replacement for the World Wide Military Command and Control System
(WWMCCS), the mainframe-based system which has served the command and control
needs of high-level US military commands for over two decades. It is now also targeted
as the system which will satisfy the vision of the C4IFTW concept.
In February, 1995, a GCCS Design Working Group was convened [BUTLER96]
to specify, define, and publish an architectural style and a set of specific architectural
components designed to satisfy both documented GCCS COE requirements and the
GCCS baseline environment. A number of command and control scenarios were
developed and analyzed in order to determine the behavior and interrelationships of the
architectural components the group had identified. The group came to the conclusion,
documented in [BUTLER96] and [MOXLEY96-1], that a traditional two-tier architecture
was unlikely to provide the robustness and flexibility required in a computing environment
envisioned to satisfy both real-time needs and non-real-time needs, processing tactical and
non-tactical data, and incorporating both high-speed LAN technology and lower-speed
16
WAN technology in a single global C4I network. They proposed as an alternative a
three-tier architecture incorporating a "subscription broker" middle tier to serve as a
mediator between consumer-oriented processes (traditional clients) and producer-oriented
processes (traditional servers). This design decision is significant because it has
repercussions not only for GCCS, but for every GCCS variant, such as the USN/USMC
JMCIS, and every GCCS variant segment, such as a JMCIS application to monitor and
control the prosecution of air defense operations. The CAC2S must be specified and
designed with this in mind.
A three-tier architecture supports several common software engineering principles.
It supports modularity and encapsulation, or information hiding, by allowing for the
development of clients and servers with no need for knowledge of the implementation
details another module might use. This significantly enhances the independence with
which clients and services can be developed. It minimizes the amount of required
system- wide knowledge, which now consists of only data types and services, as described
in [BUTLER96]. It also supports the coexistence of persistent and non-persistent data,
which is critical to the concept of combining real-time and non-real-time data
requirements, by providing a brokered structure which prioritizes the delivery of
information.
In a GCCS three-tier-architecture, client applications are mission-specific data
consumers which might support the decision-making processes of analysts and operators.
The subscription broker might be implemented using the Distributed Object Management
17
(DOM) architecture and one of two, or both, DOM technologies: the Distributed
Computing Environment (DCE) and the Common Object Request Broker Architecture
(CORBA). [BUTLER96] defines two groups of services: infrastructure services, and the
services provided on behalf of common support applications. Among the former are
communications services such as the TCP/IP applications Simple Mail Transport Protocol
(SMTP), File Transfer Protocol (FTP), and Telnet, security services, name services, time
services, object interchange services, data management and file management services, and
presentation services such as print and device services. Common support application
services include alert services, correlation services, message services, and MCG&I
services.
Perhaps the most distinguishing factor of a server is the type of data, or data
category, for which it is responsible. Rather than being categorized by the source, data is
categorized by what it describes. In grouping data by what it describes, more efficient
algorithms can be developed for parsing, sorting, and archiving that data, and more stable
Application Programming Interfaces (APIs) can be written to request and process that
data.
D. JOINT MARITIME COMMAND INFORMATION SYSTEM (JMCIS)
'98
JMCIS is the maritime variant of GCCS, and JMCIS'98 is the latest version of the
system. JMCIS'98 marks a radical departure from the legacy systems from which it
descended. A principle tenet of the JMCIS'98 project is to significantly leverage COTS
systems and the Windows/PC architecture.
18
As JMCIS is the target maritime C4I Workstation, it is incumbent upon the Marine
Corps to be active agents in the process of identifying CAC2S requirements as they
pertain to the JMCIS architecture and to ensure that CAC2S components are fully capable
of seamlessly integrating within that architecture. JMCIS component programs, such as
CAC2S, are responsible for documenting, validating, and presenting Operational
Requirements Documents (ORDs) to the Copernicus Requirements Working Group
(CRWG), the semi-annual forum for soliciting and prioritizing JMCIS requirements from
the maritime services. A CRWG database with a Web-based interface provides the
mechanism for JMCIS component program managers to track the progress of their
requirements from identification to deployment. The database is accessible, on the World
Wide Web, at http://copernicus.bahsd.com.
A keystone document, [JMCIS 97], elaborates on the planned migration of JMCIS
from a network of heterogeneous UNIX systems to a Web and PC-based operating
environment, leveraging the private sector investments in Information Technology (IT)
and simplifying maintenance and training on IT systems. Specifically, [JMCIS97]
identifies six key tenets of JMCIS'98: migration to the DII COE, migration to PC
Workstations and Servers, industry capitalization, combination of tactical and non-tactical
networks, employment of "leading-edge" logistics, and streamlining of the acquisition
process. JMCIS'98 will exercise an accelerated test/evaluate/certify/deploy cycle using the
USS Coronado (AGF11) as a "Joint Battle Lab" to ensure suitability of the JMCIS'98
architecture and its components. Five architectural phases have been defined to enable the
19
migration of JMCIS to the target environment while concurrently meeting the operational
requirements of the Fleet. The phases are identified under the JMCIS Unified Migration
Plan (JUMP).
Finally, the Joint Maritime Communications System (JMCOMS) is the
communications infrastructure upon which JMCIS'98 will be implemented. This
infrastructure will be composed of a combination of high-speed LANs, lower-speed
WANs, dedicated wireless SATCOM and LOS transmission, and on-demand (dial-up)
service.
E. SUMMARY
The paradigm for performing requirements analysis and system specification for a
complex, mission-critical, operational domain has clearly shifted. While the need to
accurately identify domain-specific data elements and data processing functionality
remains as critical as ever, now this analysis and specification must take place within the
context of the architectural guidelines developed by the DII COE, GCCS, and JMCIS
programs. A successful CAC2S operating environment will maximize the use of
underlying infrastructure and common support application services, be designed to scale
equally well across high-speed LAN and lower-speed WAN networks, and will create and
deploy data type objects which facilitate their processing and transportation in a
distributed TCP/IP network.
20
m. SECTOR ANTI AIR WARFARE CENTER (SAAWC) FUNCTIONALITY
A. CHAPTER OVERVIEW
One of the keys to successfully migrating the MACCS from the suite of legacy
equipment and processes it currently possesses to a DII COE compliant distributed
computing environment is to identify the potential objects within the system. Those
objects represent the data types manipulated by the system as well as the functional
processes which provide the services to manipulate those data types. Objects are
collections of data, or attributes, and the operations, or methods, which act on those
collections of data. The design of a DII COE compliant MACCS cannot begin without a
thorough and accurate specification of every object expected to occur in the MACCS
domain. Every data type, from a track object to an imagery object, must be specified as a
discrete collection of attributes: defined fields, values, and constraints, and a discrete
collection of methods. Those methods are defined operations which permit the retrieval,
initialization, and modification of those attributes. Every functional service, from track
services to security services, must also be specified as an object. A track server, for
example, would be specified as an object with index, communication, and storage
components implementing the functionality of an abstract machine. That abstract machine
would be capable of collecting, organizing, and distributing information on tracks,
themselves abstract representations of real-world planned or active events. The
importance of deliberate and exhaustive specification of the data types and processes
which exist and act in the MACCS domain, and specifically, the treatment of these entities
21
as objects which resemble and behave in predictable, real-world manner, is to take
advantage of a future distributed computing architecture which will facilitate the
movement and interaction of objects across a transparent, yet heterogeneous, network of
dissimilar computing platforms.
Standards such as Distributed Computing Environment (DCE) and Common
Object Request Broker Architecture (CORBA), protocols such as Hyper Text Transfer
Protocol (HTTP) and Internet Inter-ORB Protocol (HOP), and runtime environment
paradigms such as the Java Virtual Machine (JVM) are currently being implemented inside
and outside of the DOD and represent the distributed computing architecture of
tomorrow. The following discussion of SAAWC data types and functional processes
represents a beginning for the specification of the objects required to implement the
desired SAAWC functionality.
B. SAAWC PROCESSES
[SAAWC95] identifies seven "displays", or user interfaces, required to provided
the Sector Antiair Warfare Coordinator (SAWC) and the SAAWC staff with the
information they need to conduct Air Defense Battle Management (ADBM). The SAWC
is the chief architect of the ADBM plan and coordinates its implementation. The SAAWC
is the collection of systems, personnel, and procedures used to execute the ADBM. These
seven user interfaces can be used as metaphors for higher-level, or composite, "processes"
within the SAAWC that can be further decomposed into client processes, broker
processes, and server processes. Furthermore, this decomposition will identify processes,
22
such as a track serving process, which several upper level processes commonly require.
The identification of user interfaces as "processes" has the additional advantage of
providing for efficient scaling with minimal redesign effort. In a small-scale
implementation of the SAAWC, for example, a single workstation or processor may
interleave all of the SAAWC processes, permitting the operation of all the SAAWC user
interfaces on a single machine. Alternatively, in a large-scale implementation of the
SAAWC, a single workstation or processor might be dedicated to each process, providing
not only one machine for each of the SAAWC user interfaces but also one machine each
dedicated to such processes as a data management server, communications server, track
server, and so on. Either small-scale or large-scale implementations could include spare
workstations or processors loaded with client and server processes to provide the system
with a robust, fault-tolerant design. A complete representation of all SAAWC functional
processes is presented as figure 1.
SAAWC functionality is described in [S AAWC95] as requiring the following user
interfaces: Air Defense Mission Display (ADMD), Offensive Air Support (OAS) Mission
Display (OMD), Air Defense Situation Display (ADSD), Communication Status Display
(CSD), Equipment Status Display (ESD), Intelligence Display (ID), Air Situation Display
(ASD). Together these user interfaces enable the SAWC and his staff to maintain a
timely, accurate BA, plan future air defense missions and postures, and identify air defense
requirements which aren't being met. In addition to these missions, the SAAWC must also
23
24
be capable of becoming the alternate Tactical Air Command Center (TACC), should that
facility become a casualty.
The first of the SAAWC user interfaces, the ADMD, will contain information from
the Air Tasking Order (ATO) relevant to the prosecution of air defense. Within those
subsections of the ATO deemed pertinent, the display must include information regarding
mission numbers, call signs, mission type, ordnance/fuel, time on and off station, IFF
codes, mission status, terminal control agency and frequency, package designator, routing
information, and tanker availability.
The OMD will contain information from that subsection of the ATO pertaining to
Close Air Support (CAS), Deep Air Support (DAS), Air Reconnaissance, Electronic
Warfare (EW), and Offensive Antiair Warfare (OAAW) missions. The required
information within those subsections of the ATO is identical to that of the ADMD, with
the exception that more detail regarding air-to-air and air-to-ground ordnance must be
provided.
The ADSD will present a real-time depiction of the current air battlefield picture.
It must accomplish this through the presentation of "tracks”, which represent air, ground,
and seaborne entities which may have friendly, foe, unidentified, fixed, and mobile
characteristics. Additionally, this display will include air defense warning conditions and
weapons control status, Combat Air Patrol (CAP)/Fighter Engagement Zone (FEZ)
manning. Missile Engagement Zone (MEZ) status as part of the Ground based Air
25
Defense (GBAD) status. States of Alert (SOA), missile inventories for ground-to-air
missiles, and tanker assets, including tanker fuel availability.
The Air Situation Display will present a superset of the information presented by
the Air Defense Situation Display with the purpose of enabling the Sector Antiair Warfare
Coordinator and his staff to make timely decisions regarding future employment and
deployment of air defense assets. The Communication Status Display will present to the
SAWC and his staff a graphic depiction of communications personnel, equipment, and
circuit status. Pertinent information will include circuit names, designators, equipment
types, cryptographic means, frequencies, and status. The Equipment Status Display will
present a battlefield picture of the operational status of equipment associated with
designated higher, adjacent, and supporting units. Pertinent applications might include
surveying the status of organic radar units, airfield control units, and weather forecasting
units. The Intelligence Display will present a battlefield picture consisting primarily of
static information. Friendly Order of Battle (FOB) and Enemy Order of Battle (EOB),
designated facilities, friendly scheme of maneuver, and predicted enemy schemes of
maneuver will be available to the Intelligence Analyst interacting with the ID.
C. SAAWC DATATYPES
There are a number of fundamental data types which enable the SAWC and his
staff to plan, decide, and execute their assigned tasks. Foremost among these is the
concept of a "track" data type. The conventional representation of a track is as a set of
ascii text characters describing a real-world object, either fixed or mobile, ground-based,
26
air-based, or sea-based, and friendly, foe, or unidentified. It is the principal data type used
to convey meaningful information to the MACCS operators and analysts regarding the
prosecution of an air battle. At the most basic level, and as it exists in a Tactical Data
Link (TADIL) system like TADIL J, a track is a bit-oriented subset of a data stream which
is machine readable, and is manipulated by a special purpose TADIL processor to produce
something which is man-readable and conveys meaningful information to an operator.
A TADIL J message is composed of, normally, 1, 2, or 3 Link- 16 words, each
word containing 70 bits of data. TADIL J, or Link 16, is the Joint Services and NATO
forces standard for the exchange of real-time tactical data among units of the force. A
J-series message has the potential for carrying information representing a real-world
object’s identification, status, activity, location, speed, bearing, and electronic operating
parameters, along with information pertaining to the track itself, such as reporting source,
track number, and track quality. The TADIL J implementation of the track data type is a
significant enhancement to the process of forming a meaningful air battlefield picture.
Another fundamental data type is the character-oriented, man and machine
readable, USMTF record message. The USMTF message set is a collection of mission
and situation specific formatted message templates used to document and disseminate
meaningful information on every subject from plans and operational orders to chemical
attack reports and intelligence summaries. Of particular interest to the SAWC and his
staff are the ATO and Situation Reports (SITREP). The ATO is the principal means for
disseminating information pertaining to the conduct of aircraft missions (sorties) during a
27
given period of time. It is composed of subsets of information which describe the times,
activities, units, platforms, payload, and communications details for specific air missions.
The ATO itself is a poor choice for a data type. Most units, and the SAAWC is no
exception, are concerned with only that portion of the ATO which pertains to the
prosecution of their assigned tasks. The ATO may still have utility as a tool for an ACE
commander and his staff to review the projected employment of air assets during a given
period of time. However, given the advances in messaging and database technology, the
ATO is more appropriately considered as a user-defined collection of air missions which
have been developed, documented, and disseminated for the purpose of setting up the
air-related battlefield picture for a user-defined period of time. A single "air sortie" data
type is a much more precise, efficient, and meaningful way in which to represent a
real-world concept which, when executed, becomes the real-world object that is an active
air sortie. In addition to providing a clear, simple transition to a track data type, an air
sortie data type is much simpler to implement in a messaging and database driven
environment.
The USMTF formatted SITREP message is a clear, succinct vehicle for conveying
meaningful information pertaining to a unit's current status. As such, it is a good data type
for representing the unit, equipment, and weapons system conditions and status that are
required by the SAWC and his staff. The well-defined format and widespread adoption of
the SITREP make it a logical choice for a data type capable of representing real-world
28
concepts: current operating status, current weapons alert conditions, current unit
preparations. A SITREP data type is well-suited for both periodic and ad hoc messaging,
and for database archival and retrieval.
A number of additional USMTF message formats are defined for the purpose of
conveying special purpose information of central and peripheral interest to the SAWC and
his staff. Requests for supplies, changes to unit employment, and task-related liaison with
designated units are a few of the many needs fulfilled by USMTF messages. These
real-world concepts should be examined in another forum as potential data types whose
graphical representation could be location or functional area-based and whose
representation as a data type serves the purpose of logging, alerting, and managing units,
plans, and events as they occur during the prosecution of a battle.
D. PRODUCERS
The producers in a three-tier, DII COE compliant implementation of the SAAWC
are those entities capable of generating computational representations of the real-world
objects, concepts, and states which portray the battlefield picture at given intervals of
time. They are those processes which, either through user input or electro-mechanical
detection and identification, construct ADTs which can be transmitted by computer
networks and manipulated by computer clients to form a meaningful depiction of a state of
battle. Referring to [BUTLER96], a collection of producers would potentially include
those common service providers representing the bottom tier of the client/broker/server
architecture.
29
These common service providers include a track server, which would produce
track objects representing real-world battlefield entities. Emphasis for the operation of a
track server would be on near-real-time reporting of entity characteristics at the expense
of possible duplicate, non-correlated, and incompletely identified tracks. The majority of
tracks would be perishable in nature, and much of the value provided would be in their
timely presentation to the weapons control, sensor control, or display client consumer. A
secondary consideration for the consumption of tracks would be for their use in
reconstructing events at a later date for the purposes of investigation or training. A track
server might be implemented as a dynamic, real-time Relational Database Management
System (RDBMS), in which the timing constraints facilitated by priority-based scheduling
must be considered in addition to the traditional goal of guaranteeing database
consistency.
A Data Management Server, described in [BUTLER96], would consist of three
server types: an object-base server, a data management server, and a file server. An
object server would produce "intelligent" objects, binary blobs of code which could
facilitate communication between client objects and server objects. This data server
would provide all the intelligence, i.e., knowledge of the attributes of objects and of their
relations to other objects, that a client would need to establish a run-time liaison with a
server object. The data management server would produce the interfaces required for
communication between clients and various proprietary implementations of Relational
Database Management Systems (RDBMS). The file server would produce a single name
30
space, hierarchical view of the file system in which all files are presented to the client as if
they were located in a single tree structure, on a single system. Resolution of logical file
names to their actual names and locations is accomplished by the Name Server, described
below. The File Server, in conjunction with the Name Server, hides the actual physical
location of files from the client, permitting the client to make requests for files in a manner
most appropriate to its implementation. Additionally, the File Server enforces rules for the
concurrent reading/reading and reading/writing of files by distributed clients as well as the
required notification/flushing of invalid copies of files held by clients.
The Data Management Server is of particular interest to the SAAWC clients, as it
would produce track objects representing evaluated and validated real-world objects
which add intelligence to the battlefield picture. Known airfields. Surface to Air Missile
(SAM) sites, and Early Warning (EW) radar sites are examples of static entities which
might be served in a non-real-time manner to a weapons control, sensor control, or display
client consumer. The implementation of a Data Management Server which provided static
data in a track data type format would facilitate the transmission and reception of this data
in a TADIL broadcast, as well as provide for the consumption of the data by clients
generating request over traditional Local Area and Wide Area Networks. Finally, the
implementation of a Correlation Server would be simplified by the specification of both
perishable and non-perishable formats for a track data type by eliminating the requirement
for translation between unlike data representations such as tracks and database records.
A Correlation Server would be a source for data fusion within the system.
31
providing "value-added" intelligence to the tracks it was subscribing to as a track
consumer, producing a track with a higher level of assurance to subscribing consumers.
Emphasizing data consistency and employing a set of business rules which enable the
correlation of perishable tracks with one another, and perishable tracks with database
records, the Correlation Server might generate tracks carrying a validity qualification
which permitted their overwriting of less valid tracks stored locally at the subscribing
consumer. The quality of a Correlation Server's produced tracks would be valuable both
to a non-real-time track consumer and to a real-time track consumer, tasked both with
providing what is known in the Intelligence community as data of an Indications and
Warning nature as well as with providing data of an Intelligence (evaluated information)
nature.
A Security Server would be responsible for providing the security services required
to enable distributed processing and communication services which preserved the
authenticity, secrecy, and integrity of the transmitted data. Specifically, the Security
Server might produce certificates upon request by a client which enables the process of
authenticating communications between the client and a specified server. The Security
Server might also produce cryptographic keys which enable the client and server to
communicate in a manner which disguises the nature of their communications. Finally, a
Security Server might produce digital signatures for communicating processes which
provides a mechanism for detecting the alteration of data enroute from a sending process
to a receiving process.
32
The Security Server plays a critical role in a distributed computing environment in
which mobile code transits not only LANs but also, increasingly, WANs. Centralizing the
role of security in a server enables turnkey solutions, such as the Kerberos Server, to be
implemented, while at the same time allowing intelligence to be built into clients permitting
dynamic determination of the needs and levels of secure communication. Appendix C
provides elaborating information on the Kerberos Server.
A Time Server simplifies the process of synchronization between networked
processes. Each server in the three-tier architecture might subscribe to the Time Server,
consuming the produced timestamps which facilitate synchronization among cooperating
processes. Timestamps are a critical means for permitting correctness in computation and
for auditing computing histories.
An Alert Server would produce simple messages, alerts, in response to an alert
filter profile created by a subscribing client process. These messages could be in audio,
visual, text-based, or graphics-based format, and they might reference the track, record, or
message data type identified in the alert filter profile. An intelligent Alert Server
implementation would subscribe to and monitor both real-time and non-real-time streams
of data types transiting the network, and generate alerts which contained references to the
identification and location within the system of the subject data type. Centralizing alert
services permits the reduction of redundancy within the system. If, for example, several
client consumers have indicated interest in the release of a pending operation order
message, only one process need monitor the network for that message, and only one copy
33
of that message need be saved and referenced by the alerted clients. An Alert Server
should be capable of producing alerts based upon profiled real-world objects, real-world
concepts, and real-world events, as well as computer-related conceptions such as alerts to
other servers, for example, to initiate back-ups to their secondary or off-site storage.
A Map Server would produce the appropriate vector or raster depiction of the
requested display background. This server could function as a single-point repository for
navigational charts, tactical maps, and digital images, as well as vector-based geographical
displays. Additionally, non-traditional maps, such as the inside of a warehouse, or a
computer-driven electronic "message board", could be produced, rendered as vector
diagrams, and used by subscribing clients to provide spatial and chronological context for
supply "tracks" or record message "tracks" which are graphically displayed on the client
machine. The primary responsibility of the Map Server is to produce background displays
which provide the most appropriate context in which the user can draw conclusions from
the overlaid "track" information. Whereas initial implementations of a Map Server might
force the client to subscribe to specific display types and scales, an intelligent
implementation might make display type and scale decisions based upon the "clutter" of
tracks, display resolution, display size of the consuming client, and user selection.
A Name Server would provide the critical function of mapping logical names to
physical locations throughout the network. The Name Server would produce references
to the real-world objects, concepts, and events in the naming context which was most
appropriate to the subscribing consumer, resolving the requests to determine the correct
34
identification and location of the named entity. The resolved names produced must permit
quick, efficient, and accurate communication across the network between the subscribing
client and the server storing the resolved entity. A single source, name-resolving process
simplifies the operations of adding and removing clients, brokers, servers, devices, and
network protocols to and from the network.
A Message Server would be a client subscriber to the Communications Server,
parsing, archiving, and forwarding to subscribing clients references to requested messages.
The intelligence built into a Message Server would consist of the functionality to
recognize message formats and to properly distribute messages to the primary or
secondary storage of its subscribers. For example, tracks from a non-TADIL source
would be forwarded to the Track and Correlation Server for processing and archival,
while SITREPS would be forwarded to a local message library and to addressed
subscribers. A Message Server is a producer in the sense that it takes character-based
man-readable and machine-readable data from the Communications Server and produces a
formatted message recognizable to subscribing clients. A Message Server might also be a
repository for message format templates which facilitate the correct drafting of messages
by clients, as well as a repository for message addressee templates which simplifys the
process of addressing messages.
Finally, a Communications Server would manage the interfaces required by clients
to access and employ application level processes specific to the underlying network
protocols. For example, the Communications Server would provide TCP/IP-based
35
SMTP, SNMP, FTP, Telnet, and HTTP services to subscribing clients, enabling them to
be designed in such a manner as to focus on data type and service type needs rather than
on communication type specifications. A Communications Server would work hand in
hand with a Network Server, translating messages into data streams packaged for
communication over particular datalink, network, and transport layer configurations, in
addition to unpacking received data streams for subscribing clients.
E. CONSUMERS
In the truest sense of the term client, most producers are themselves also clients of
certain data types and processes. For example, every producer would subscribe to the
broker for timestamps provided by the Time Server. Certainly, our broker in the three-tier
architecture is also a client of the data provided by the various servers. However, for the
purposes of this paper, the clients of interest are those identified in a review of required
functionality for the SAAWC: Air Defense Mission Display, Air Defense Situation
Display, Offensive Air Support Mission Display, Air Situation Display, Intelligence
Display, Communications Status Display, and Equipment Status Display.
These clients are themselves composite entities containing atomic clients: they are
the principal interface between the human operator and the processes which receive, store,
manipulate, and present data in a meaningful manner to him. It is in this context that
clients are described. They are presented as the composite operator which organizes and
coordinates the processes responsible for consuming requested data elements as well as
commands from the human operator.
36
The ADMD client and the OMD client both exist for the purpose of presenting
graphical representations of those portions of the ATO pertinent to the respective
Displays. This is the principal means by which the human operator is able to develop a
comprehensive FOB for a given period of time, for the purpose of prosecuting air defense
and offensive air support tasks. The two display clients consume the digitized charts,
maps and images, received from the Map Server, and present them to the operator in a
manner which conveys the spatial and chronologic ordering of air sorties described in the
ATO. The two display clients also consume queried air sortie data types, presenting them
as tracks representing the concept of planned but not yet executed missions.
By focusing on the background display needs of the human operator, and using the
inherent geographic, functional, and chronologic attributes of the planned air sorties,
powerful relations can be drawn and displayed to the operator which relate the planned air
battlespace in a manner which provides intelligence to the battlefield. For example, if an
operator desires to see a given area of the air battlefield, then his request should be
interpreted not only as an invocation to display the geographic area, but also as a query
into the sortie database to display those air sortie tracks which are related to the requested
area. In another example, if an operator desires to see chronologic coverage of a needed
asset, say air refueling, then a request to display a timeline should also invoke a query to
display those air sortie tracks functionally related to the request, and in a manner which
conveys their relation to the displayed timeline. By considering, designing, and creating
these different data elements, charts, timelines, and planned sorties, as
37
computer-generated, object-oriented manifestations of real-world concepts, we can
develop computer-derived presentations of real-world events which encapsulate the
meaning of activities such as personnel and equipment moving through the air battlefield.
Furthermore, by describing data elements, such as air sorties, as tracks
representing unexecuted missions, it provides for a simple, yet powerful means by which
real-world concepts can be transformed into the real-world events which are of interest to
the ASD, ADSD, and ID clients. These clients are the principal means by which the
SAWC and the SAAWC operators monitor the real-time events of the air battlefield.
These clients also should incorporate the mechanisms for consuming and presenting to the
operator background displays which convey the geographical and chronologic boundaries
of the air battlespace, as well as the activity within those boundaries, on behalf of the
respective air and air defense controllers. The consumed tracks, in this case, are those
tracks representing actual missions, sea-based and ground-based as well as air-based,
which have a direct bearing on the controlled battlespace. All tracks would consist of
geographic, functional, and chronologic attributes which mark them for retrieval from a
locally stored, dynamically updated database, to be displayed upon the triggering
background display.
The radical departure from the traditional means of depicting the battlespace as a
two-dimensional field of sensor-derived contacts, as is the case with current TADIL
processor and display subsystems, would be a shift in recognition that the source of data is
much less important to the operators and analysts than is the type of that data. In a battle
38
environment where tactical events begin as concepts, become executing events, influence
other executing events, then evolve into historical occurrences, the common thread that is
the grouping of personnel, equipment, and tactics should be encapsulated into a common,
consistent data type. That data type would be composed of attributes which illustrate its
state, facilitate its manipulation by computing processes, and permit its representation to a
human operator in ways which allow him to draw intelligent and meaningful conclusions
about the prosecution of battle.
The CSD and the ESD clients principally consume information regarding the
operation of the components responsible for the S AAWC communication, computing, and
presentation infrastructure. A traditional interpretation of this functionality consists
primarily of equipment and network status messages which indicate the current operating
condition of the system devices and communication links. A broader interpretation
includes status messages indicating traffic flow, logging of system events, and information
pertaining to the configuration of the equipment such as the procedures traditionally found
in the Communications Annex, Annex K, of an operational plan. The CSD and ESD
clients might consume geographical displays from a Map Server for presentation to the
user as a background, representing an abstraction of the real-world locations and activities
of his communications and computing devices. Status messages might be objects, which
are generated and modified by Communications and Device Servers, with methods
permitting the display of the objects as tracks, or their forwarding to other clients for
action. What is of significant interest to these clients is that these configuration and status
39
messages be modeled as objects which represent the abstract notion of the state of
computing machines and computing networks, and are defined in a manner both to make
their manipulation and presentation by clients responsible for these activities simpler, and
to facilitate this presentation so that it contributes to the notion of a COP and provides
intelligence to an otherwise dissimilar and unrelated collection of events.
F. SUMMARY
The preceding discussion of data types, processes, producers and consumers,
which are all part of the S AAWC operational domain, is intended to illuminate the process
of developing computing domain implementations of operating domain entities. This is
the critical first step in the process of designing an Automated Information System (AIS)
solution to an identified operational need: in this case the need to build a general purpose,
"Battlefield Awareness Machine", capable of bringing coherence to the air battlespace for
which SAAWC operators are responsible.
An important observation, regarding the processes and services described above,
is that many are generic services typical of those found in a distributed computing
environment. They are also common to the command, control, communications,
intelligence, administration, logistics, and other assorted activities taking place throughout
a given organization at the tactical, operational, and strategic levels. Furthermore, many,
if not all, of these services are currendy specified and implemented both in Commercial Off
The Shelf (COTS) and Government Off The Shelf (GOTS) solutions which are part of
current, or planned, versions of the GCCS and Global Combat Support System (GCSS).
40
IV. PROTOTYPE DESIGN
A. CHAPTER OVERVIEW
This chapter describes the methodology used to develop the SAAWC prototype
with the CAPS tool, as well as the steps taken to build that prototype. Also described are
the various tools used in addition to CAPS to model process interaction and message flow
in order to produce a prototype which most accurately captures the behavior exhibited in
the SAAWC. The chapter serves to document the analytical process responsible for the
composite and atomic functionality designed into the SAAWC prototype.
B. COMPUTER AIDED PROTOTYPING SYSTEM (CAPS)
The Computer Aided Prototyping System is a software engineering solution to the
need to rapidly develop executable prototypes from user specifications to contribute to the
accurate, correct, and satisfactory development of Automated Information Systems.
CAPS was developed at the Naval Postgraduate School as a tool for modeling real-time
embedded software systems which exhibit the control and timing constraints expected in
the modeled system itself. CAPS is an operating environment which consists of a set of
tools which permit the prototype designer to graphically depict functional operators and
data streams at composite and atomic levels. CAPS uses a fifth-generation prototyping
language, PSDL, which provides the designer with the mechanisms needed to implement
the timing and control constraints, messaging, and data typing in the prototype. Through
an integrated scheduler and translator, CAPS creates the Ada language specifications for
each atomic operator, data stream, and user-defined data type. In addition, CAPS
41
provides the implementation for a main procedure which dictates the timed behavior of the
prototype and how exceptions developed during prototype runtime are handled. CAPS
includes the functionality to invoke an Ada compiler for the production of the prototype
executable code.
C. PRELIMINARY DESIGNS
In preparation for using the CAPS graphical editor to determine composite and
atomic operators and associated data streams, preliminary designs were constructed using
the X-Windows drawing tool known as xfig. This approach proved beneficial for two
reasons: operator and data stream placement could more easily be initiated and changed,
in attempts to reduce screen clutter and improve viewing clarity, because the screen
redrawing was more efficient; and additions and deletions to the existing operators and
data streams were not associated with the creation and modification of PSDL code, which
lessened the likelihood of garbage declarations occurring in the PSDL code during the
CAPS graphical editing phase. Drawings with the xfig tool were created to represent the
high-level SAAWC as well as single-level decompositions of all the SAAWC composite
operators. A sample drawing, of the decomposed Broker operator, is presented in
figure 2.
A second tool, Microsoft Excel spreadsheet, was used following the stabilization
of the xfig drawings to represent event sequences corresponding to desired prototype
behavior for typical scenarios. A spreadsheet was created with the horizontal axis
representing SAAWC composite operators and the vertical axis marked by consecutive
42
Figure 2. Broker Operator Drawn with xfig
43
labels for points in time during prototype execution, appearing in chronological order.
Spreadsheet cells were populated with a text value representing two concepts: the first is
the data stream label associated with the originating SAAWC composite or atomic
operator, and the second is a label which uniquely identifies the event which triggered a
series of related messages. For example, in figure 3, row 3, column 3, the cell value
"ad_sub_tracks=tracks_I_want" represents a message sent from an atomic operator within
the composite operator Air Defense System Display indicating a request to subscribe and
receive notification from the system of the presence of a track, or set of tracks, with the
particular request being associated with the tag "tracks_I_want." The spreadsheet was
edited to depict at least one series of messages originating, terminating, or passing through
every SAAWC composite operator. The complete spreadsheet is included as Appendix B.
This presentation of associated data flow triggered by system events facilitated the
determination of accuracy, correctness, and thoroughness of the initial SAAWC diagrams.
In one example where the spreadsheet highlighted an initial system design flaw, during the
process of tracing message flow which resulted from a request to display track
information, it was determined that such a request logically should also trigger
subscriptions and requests to the Correlation Server and to the Data Management Server
as well as to the more obvious Track Server.
44
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45
D. CAPS GRAPHICAL EDITING
1. High-level Prototype Decomposition
The purpose of the CAPS SAAWC prototype, presented as figure 4, is to model
the data flow and functional operator interaction which exists within the modeled system,
a SAAWC application segment running in the JMCIS environment. In the design of the
prototype a decision was made to narrow the scope of simulated SAAWC behavior by
including only a decomposition of that functionality specified for the Air Defense System
Display (ADSD) operator. This decision was made after analysis of the modeled system
indicated overlapping functionality between the seven SAAWC functional operators. The
selection of the remaining operators for the high-level SAAWC prototype followed from
the identification in previous work of the user interface and of the common infrastructure
support and common support application functionality. Three operators were added to
simulate external feeds of data or mechanisms for user interaction: a network operator,
TADIL_J operator, and a get_user_command operator. An implementation of the
network operator would simulate a LAN itself, presenting network-specific packages, in
this implementation consisting of a user-defined data type called "bits", to the
Communication Server composite operator for further processing. The network operator
would similarly receive from the Communication Server operator messages which had
been packaged as "bits", and were prepared for transmission onto the simulated network.
An implementation of the TADIL_J operator would simulate a feed from a TADIL J
processor, itself capable of presenting "tracks" representing mobile operational entities,
46
Figure 4. CAPS SAAWC Prototype
47
packaged in a track file which is transmitted periodically. A final additional operator,
get_user_cmd, would be implemented in a Graphical User Interface (GUI) programming
tool, such as the TAE 1 and would be the means by which the executing prototype
interacted with the user utilizing the standard input and standard output streams for
communication.
The logic behind the selection of particular data streams for implementation at the
high-level SAAWC, to carry messages between the specified composite and atomic
operators, resulted from the previous analysis of the functionality of the operators
themselves. Examination of the ADSD functionality, for example, identified the need to
accept from a user requests to process and archive "filters", or requests, representing
tracks, messages, alerts, database records, and map displays pertinent to the prosecution
of specific user tasks. Data streams for each of these messages, as well as data streams to
carry composed messages, print requests, and requests for secure communications
sessions, were identified and drawn to convey the information required for the user to
elicit the desired behavior from the prototype. At this level of the ADSD operator,
moreover, it is assumed that some sort of internal processing would take place. This
processing might consist of validation of these message requests or of archival and
modification of locally maintained filters prior to transmission of the messages, intact, to
the Broker operator. This internal processing is elaborated upon in the section describing
the decomposition of the ADSD composite operator.
'TAE is a trademark of the National Aeronautic and Space Administration.
48
The Broker operator is the cntical archiving, controlling, and validating
component in the three-tier architecture. At the highest-level, the complexity of its
decision-making is hidden. The operator was drawn to convey the transmission of
messages, triggered upon receipt of messages from various originating operators, to the
appropriate destination operators. In fact, all outgoing data streams were drawn at this
level as responses to the associated incoming data streams. For example, an incoming
request to subscribe to the Map Server generated a request to the Map Server, which in
turn generated a message containing either the map location or the map itself, triggering a
Broker message to the requester which would contain the map itself. One additional data
stream was drawn to carry Broker configuration information from the user to the Broker.
Implementation of this functionality would permit a user to directly influence the
decision-making logic of the Broker, determining such things as priority of delivery of
tracks, validation of service requests of particular clients, and discrimination of duplicate
or time-late information from a server.
The Alert Server composite operator was drawn with two inputs: messages
containing track information, and user-generated requests to set a filter for specific track
information. A single data stream output, an alert, would be generated by a successful
reconciliation between an internal track message database and a particular filter request.
This reconciliation process, amplified by the Alert Server decomposition, would be
triggered by the receipt of either a new track message or a new filter request message.
Similarly, the Track Server composite operator was drawn to indicate message
49
inputs from two sources: the TADIL_J operator and the Broker operator. Messages
coming from the Broker represent user- generated requests for specific "tracks", and the
messages coming from the TADIL_J operator represent the actual tracks themselves. The
Track Server would encapsulate the behavior necessary to reconcile requests for tracks
against an internally managed track repository, responding to successful matches with a
corresponding message to the user.
The Communications Server composite operator was drawn to be the interface
between the SAAWC itself and the external network. To this extent, the Communications
Server operator is illustrated receiving messages from, and delivering messages to, the
network operator. Additionally, data streams representing unpacked FTP, HTTP, SMTP,
SNMP, and UDP messages were drawn from the Communications Server operator to the
Broker operator, indicating some internal processing of the network generated messages
prior to their routing to the appropriate destination. This processing might include
extracting the TCP/IP application packets, verifying them for correctness, assembling
complete messages, or perhaps validating timeliness of delivery. Finally, two data streams
are drawn from the Broker operator to the Communications Server operator: the first,
session_data, represents a SAAWC user-generated message destined for an addressee
outside the SAAWC network, and the second, session_control, represents a SAAWC
user-generated control message indicating a desire to set up a particular TCP/IP
application session between the originator and a specified destination. For example, a user
generating an HTTP request for the first time might in fact generate two messages, the
50
first telling the Communications Server to establish a "thread" of communication between
the user and the local HTTP server, perhaps acting in the role of a "proxy" WWW server,
while the second message would contain the contents of the page, or resource, request
itself.
The Device Server and Map Server are composite operators drawn with highly
refined, single-purpose functionality. A data stream from the Broker operator to the
Device Server represents an administrator-generated message to add, modify, or perhaps
delete a physical device resource to, or from, the network. The outgoing device_status
message is both an indication to the administrator of the success of the device installation,
as well as a trigger to the Name Server composite operator to modify its Name database
so that user-generated requests to utilize a particular resource are properly mapped to the
actual location of that physical device.
The Map Server composite operator is drawn in a similar manner, illustrating the
generation of a map message, containing the map itself or perhaps a reference to a map file
that is physically located elsewhere. This is triggered in response to an incoming message,
request_map, representing a user- generated request to receive a particular display
background for local manipulation.
The Correlation Server composite operator encapsulates functionality for
providing "intelligence", or added value, to the tracks processed in the SAAWC. For this
reason, the Correlation Server operator was drawn to illustrate "black box" processing of
incoming tracks and filter track requests, just as the Alert Server and Track Server
51
operators were. But the Correlation Server operator was also drawn to indicate an
outgoing message subscription to the Data Management Server. A corresponding
incoming data stream, respond_db_change, represents the Data Management Server's
message response containing the requested database record information. It is presumed,
at this level, that some unspecified internal processing exists to correlate track information
with database record information and that successful matches will be delivered to the user,
via the Broker operator, on the respond_valid_tracks data stream.
The Data Management Server is a composite operator providing functionality to
query, modify, add, and delete database records in response to user requests. In order to
simplify the interface presented to potential clients of the Data Management Server, the
operator was drawn with a single incoming data stream, encapsulating the request
attributes, such as database record type, index, and request type. It is presumed that some
internal processing of the messages, to extract and route the requests to the designated
atomic operators, is provided. A single corresponding outgoing data stream represents
the success of the user request and, if appropriate, the results of the request.
The Message Server composite operator is envisioned to be an archival service for
the management of incoming and SAAWC user-generated USMTF messages. Not unlike
the Alert Server, Track Server, and Correlation Server, the Message Server operator is
drawn to convey some internal processing of the incoming messages it has subscribed to
receive, as well as the incoming message filter requests generated by the ADSD client. A
corresponding outgoing data stream, respond_msgs, represents matches made between the
52
received and requested messages. Additional functionality has been incorporated into the
Message Server, however, to provide for message template service to the ADSD client. It
is presumed that an internally managed template database would be available to users
requesting message templates, via the respond_template data stream, by serving up a
formatted file, or a reference to a formatted file, with which the user could initiate the
message-generation process.
The Name Server composite operator provides critical, single point, logical
resource to physical location mapping. In the absence of such an implementation each
client, including every server acting in a client capacity, would require local updating on
every occasion that a new resource was added to the system. Such a scheme would
quickly become unmanageable. Two incoming data streams, req_resource and
mod_obj_loc respectively, correspond to client-generated requests for resources and to
administrator-generated messages effecting changes to the locations of those resources.
The lone outgoing data stream, resource_phys_loc, carries the information needed to
effect communication with the resource itself, or, in the case of a file resource, initiate the
file transfer process.
The Print Server composite operator was illustrated to reflect incoming print
requests and corresponding outgoing print job spooled messages. Additionally, it was
presumed that print requests might be one of two varieties: existing text, map, or graphic
files, or screen grabs. To account for the former case, the data stream request_file was
drawn to represent a message to the Name Server for file location information, and the
53
data stream receive_file drawn to represent the corresponding response. To account for
the latter case, some black box processing is presumed for the acquisition of ADSD
display parameters and the building of a file into the appropriate format for printing.
The Security Server is a composite operator encapsulating the functionality
necessary to provide secure communication sessions which preserve the secrecy, integrity,
and authenticity of the session content. Incoming data streams, representing
user-generated requests for certificates, keys, and signatures, were drawn to depict the
initiation of a secure session, on behalf of any client to any other client or server, with the
corresponding issue_key, issue_certificate, and issue_signature data streams drawn to
represent the Security Server operator's responses. Internal processing is presumed at this
point to include at least the generation, archival, and processing of all certificates, keys,
and signatures, required by the ADSD client and system servers in the course of
conducting communication sessions.
Finally, the Time Server operator is drawn as a composite operator with the
functionality to produce periodic timestamps, represented by the data stream, new_time,
which are then used by the Broker operator to orchestrate the message receipt, course of
action prosecution, and message-generation upon which the entire system relies for
efficient and predictable behavior. Decomposition of the Time Server operator is
expected to reveal the functionality required to develop and operate a global clock,
capable of generating accurate, fault-tolerant system timestamps.
54
2c
Air Defense System Display (ADSD) Decomposition
The ADSD, presented in figure 5, was decomposed to incorporate the
functionality necessary to retain locally managed state for user-defined track filters,
database record filters, message filters, map display filters, and alert filters. The provision
of atomic operators which maintain the state of a user's outstanding filter requests allows
for efficiencies to be implemented at the ADSD level. For example, were a user to request
track information on all F/A-18s in a particular air sector over a given 15 minute period of
time, and then follow that up with a request for track information on all F/A-18s in the
same air sector over a 30 minute period, rather than build a new filter to manage incoming
tracks which meet this new description, the atomic operator responsible for managing
track filters, track_display_db in the prototype, would reconcile the time fields of the
original filter request and generate a subscription message intended to reflect this
modification to the Broker and Track Server operators. Locally maintained state can also
reduce message traffic within the system by validating user-generated requests denying,
for example, requests which are redundant, incomplete, or unachievable within established
time constraints. Each of the five filter request operators are drawn to indicate the receipt
of filter modification messages, the self-generation of those messages back to the
operators to indicate an effected change of state, and the generation of new subscription
messages intended to indicate to the appropriate service a change in the desired service
requests.
A securityjmanager atomic operator was developed to incorporate the
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Exte rna ) fiHer.lracKs j atlsii ti J ra c fcs — External
functionality required by a user desiring the initiation of a secure session with another
client or server. The operator was drawn to illustrate the triggering of independent
requests for the components of a secure session: certificates, keys, and signatures. These
requests are based upon incoming messages stored in the msg_out data stream which are
generated by the user developing content, for example, USMTF messages or e-mail,
intended for transmission to a designated recipient. The content would be held pending
arrival of the secure components, indicated by the iss_certificate, iss_key, and
iss_signature data streams, whereupon the securityjmanager operator self-generates state
modification messages, wraps the content accordingly, and places the resulting secure
message on the outgoing data stream secure_msg_out. Efficiencies achieved by a locally
maintained state operator, such as security_manager, include the reuse of existing
certificate, key, and signature information during multiple secure sessions between the
same parties, and the validation of secure session requests based upon predetermined rules
for session requests with specific destination clients and servers.
A final ADSD functionality is illustrated with the print_manager atomic operator.
A stateless operator, the print_manager would process print requests ensuring, for
example, that the requests were properly formatted, addressed, and prioritized. The
corresponding message, print_response, would be processed with information being
displayed to the user indicating the result of the print request and, perhaps, amplifying
information on the handling of the print request by specific printing devices.
57
3 .
Alert Server
The Alert Server, presented in figure 6, is decomposed into three atomic
operators. The alerts_update_filter operator incorporates the functionality required to
retain knowledge of all received alert requests. The state maintenance of this atomic
operator is indicated by the self-generated state stream, alerts_filter, which is triggered by
an incoming message, req_alerts. The alerts_filter state stream both modifies the internally
managed database of alerts requests and carries the most recent alert filter request to the
operator resolve_alerts, itself responsible for resolving existing alert filter requests with
incoming messages. The atomic operator resolve_alerts receives incoming messages on
the data stream alerts_message_db, which is triggered in response to the receipt at
operator update_msgs of incoming messages generated by the composite operator's
subscription to the Message Server. Like the alerts_update_filter, the update_msgs
operator maintains state through the self-generated state stream, alerts_message_db,
which modifies an internally managed database of incoming messages.
The critical resolution process, whereby alert messages are generated and put on
the respond_alerts data stream, is encapsulated in the resolve_alerts operator which itself
is triggered upon receipt of messages from either of the alerts_update_filter operator or
the update_msgs operator. One note on the potential implementation of the
alerts_update_filter operator: in order to preserve modularity and independence in the
development of client operators, this operator should be completely unaware of which
clients are requesting which particular alert filters. Instead, this operator maintains
58
Figure 6. Alert Server Operator
59
knowledge only of what messages are to be monitored for the generation of alerts. Such
an implementation simplifies the record-keeping required of the alerts_update_filter and
passes the burden of associating specific requests to particular clients to the Broker
operator, where it must reside in order to allow development of an Alert Server which has
no knowledge or dependence on potential client implementations.
4. Broker
The Broker operator, presented in figure 7, is decomposed into three atomic
operators. The client_thread_manager operator processes requests from clients, or
servers acting as clients, either constructing new threads, modifying existing threads, or
destroying threads in response to those requests, and puts responses to those requests for
service on the data stream client_req, as appropriate. This data stream is drawn as a state
stream, indicating that the message on the data stream is used not only to trigger the
business_rules_manager operator, but also to modify the state of the internally managed
client thread database. The client_thread_manager also receives the data stream
valid_srv_response, representing a response to a client request for service. It processes
the content of this message, updating the record-keeping associated with that particular
client request, and forwards the message on the relevant data stream corresponding to the
initial request.
The business_rules_manager atomic operator is where the "personality" of the
entire SAAWC system resides. This is the operator which contains the intelligence to
adjudicate client- generated requests for service, validating not only client requests but also
60
61
server responses, prioritizing delivery of those responses to real-time and non-real-time
clients alike, and correlating requests for specific types and values of information to
reduce the number of duplicate transmissions throughout the network. The
business_rules_manager operator processes the client_req data stream and responds to
valid requests by generating the valid_client_req message to the server_thread_manager
operator. Similarly, it processes the srv_response data stream and responds to valid server
responses by generating the valid_srv_response message to the client_thread_manager.
The mod_rules data stream represents the interface between the system administrator and
the system for effecting modifications to the set of rules for determining system-wide
prioritization, validation, and domain-specific logic. The mod_rules data stream is
represented as a state stream, indicating self-modification of the state of the
business_rules_manager operator through the content of this data stream.
The server_thread_manager atomic operator functions much as the
client_thread_manager operator does, maintaining a database of all current subscription
threads to system servers, each thread referencing a capsule of data attributes which
indicate the status, originator, destination, and message content associated with a thread
session. The operator updates itself through the state stream srv_response, a copy of
which is also passed to the business_rules_manager for content validation.
5. Communications Server
The Communications Server operator, presented in figure 8, is decomposed into
two sets of TCP/IP application processor operators, two network interface operators for
62
Figure 8. Communications Server Operator
63
handling messages delivered to, and received from, the network, and a session_manager
atomic operator which manages the establishment and maintenance of TCP/IP application
sessions initiated by the ADSD client. The two sets of TCP/IP application processors
represent a subset of the larger group of TCP/IP application protocols in use today. The
Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP) provides for simple management of e-mail client
and server operations, the Hyper Text Transfer Protocol (HTTP) is a mechanism by which
World Wide Web pages are transferred from servers in response to client requests, the
Simple Network Management Protocol (SNMP) provides a means for the monitoring and
management of network operations, the User Datagram Protocol (UDP) is used for
connectionless data transfers in which dropped packets can be tolerated, and the File
Transfer Protocol (FTP) provides a mechanism and a set of commands for effecting the
transfer of files between nodes on the network.
Each of these protocols is represented by both an outgoing process operator and
an incoming process operator. The outgoing process operators take client-generated
messages and package them for transmission on the network. Protocol-specific message
segmenting, labeling, and prioritization are among the potentially implementable activities
at this level. The incoming process operators receive the respective protocol encapsulated
packets, strip the protocol header information from the messages, reconstitute the
messages into their original, pre-transmission state, and forward the messages to the
addressed destination.
The network interface atomic operators implement specific network datalink-layer
64
functionality, packing and unpacking, segmenting and reconstituting, transmitting and
retransmitting packets as necessary. The characteristics of datalink-layer transmission
protocols, such as IEEE 802.3 or IEEE 802.5, would be simulated at this level in order to
evaluate potential performance bottlenecks or constraints within the network. Finally, the
session_manager atomic operator would manage and archive session requests in response
to the user-generated requests for new sessions arriving on the session_control data
stream. This data stream is implemented as a state stream, modifying the internally
managed database of TCP/IP application sessions. The incoming session_data data stream
carries the content of the session-specific request which may, in the event the content
references an FTP session, for example, contain the commands and arguments required to
initiate a file transfer between client and server.
6. Correlation Server
The Correlation Server operator, presented in figure 9, is decomposed into five
atomic operators. Three operators implement the functionality of receiving archival
messages, and of triggering self-generated responses which modify the internally managed
state of the operators, while simultaneously putting the responses on outgoing data
streams destined for a correlation processor. The three operators identify functionality for
the archiving of track requests, database records, and tracks developed from
sensor-derived information distributed throughout the network. The first of the two
correlating operators, correlate_tracks, reconciles incoming tracks with database records
in order to produce a "value-added" track with some higher degree of assurance as to the
65
Figure 9. Correlation Server Operator
66
track’s authenticity, The second correlanng operator, correl_handle_query, reconciles the
value-added tracks with user-generated track requests, responding only with matches
which represent the identification of a particular track, or set of tracks, of interest to the
user. Finally, and as previously described, the two data streams, subscribe_tracks and
subscribe_db_changes, represent requests from the Correlation Server to subscribe to the
Track Server and Data Management Server in order to continually receive new track and
database record information, reflecting both the dynamic nature of the rapidly changing
battlefield and the changing needs of the ADSD operator.
7. Data Management Server
The Data Management Server, presented in figure 10, incorporates the
functionality to determine the data type and request type of a particular data management
request before passing the message content to a particular DBMS for action. Three
DBMS types, an object DBMS, a conventional record DBMS, and a file DBMS, are
specified in the Data Management Server as a collection of independent processes acting
on requests for querying, modifying, adding, and deleting the request contents from the
respective DBMSs'. Each DBMS consists of four similar atomic operators, each of which
is triggered by a message received from the resolve_request_type atomic operator. With
the exception of those atomic operators handling DBMS queries, or record retrievals, each
of the DBMS atomic operators generates a state stream, for the purpose of
self-modification, as well as generating an outgoing data stream, corresponding to the
triggering input stream, which carries the result of the DBMS request back to the request
67
Figure 10. Data Management Server Operator
68
originator All responses to DBMS requests are passed from the DBMS atomic operators
to the format_response operator which packages the response in a DBMS-independent
format for further transmission to the request originator.
The resolve_data_type atomic operator is illustrated as a process which receives
the initial requests for DBMS action, determines the appropriate DBMS for service, and
forwards the resolved request to the resolve_request_type atomic operator. An
implementation of the resolve_request_type atomic operator would be made aware of the
available DBMS methods through contact with each DBMS's published interface and
would be responsible for invoking the correct method based upon the resolved request
type indicated in the incoming req_data_type data stream.
A sample transaction, to delete a conventional database record from a database,
would proceed as follows: the request would be identified as carrying data type database
record in the resolve_data_type atomic operator; the request would be identified as
request type delete database record in the resolve_request_type atomic operator; the
delete database record request would be forwarded to the delete_record atomic operator
where the record deletion would be effected, and a corresponding request status message
would be generated; the request status message would be processed by the
format_response atomic operator where it would be stripped of any DBMS-specific
packaging and formatted for transmission to, and processing by, the request originator.
8. Device Server
The Device Server, presented in figure 11, is decomposed into a single, simple
69
atomic operator, mount_device. Triggered by the incoming data stream,
administer_device, an implementation of the mount_device operator would retrieve the
configuration file referenced in the administer_device message and apply the appropriate
device driver information to enable the device on the network. Alternatively, the
administer_device data stream could carry information indicating the removal of a
referenced device from the network. In the latter case, the device_status message would
be transmitted to the Broker with a value of false, indicating to the Broker operator the
removal of the device from the network. The Broker operator would generate a
corresponding message to the Name Server, which would update its table of logical to
physical resource mappings accordingly. A value of true on the device_status data stream
would indicate to the Broker operator the addition of a device to the network, in this case
causing the Broker operator to generate a message to the Name Server for the appropriate
modifications to its table of logical to physical resource mappings.
70
9.
Map Server
The Map Server, presented in figure 12, also is functionally decomposed into a
single atomic operator, locate_map. This operator is triggered upon receipt of the
incoming request_map data stream, the contents of which reference a logical map or
image requested by the ADSD client. An implementation of the locate_map atomic
operator would map the referenced map or image to an actual map or image file and then
initiate a file transfer to deliver that file to the ADSD client for display.
10. Message Server
The Message Server, presented in figure 13, is functionally decomposed into four
atomic operators: three are associated, respectively, with the archiving of incoming
messages, requests for messages, and the matching of the two; the fourth atomic operator,
template_database, responds to user-generated requests for message templates by
searching an internally managed database of templates, then responding on the outgoing
data stream, respond_template, with the requested message template.
71
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Figure 13. Message Server Operator
72
The msg_update_filter atomic operator provides the functionality for the archiving
of message filter requests, in the same manner as the alerts_update_filter atomic operator
in the Alert Server. Message requests are delivered on the incoming data stream
request_msgs, triggering a corresponding state stream msg_filter, which updates the
operator itself and notifies the msg_handle_query atomic operator of the new filter request
via the msg_filter data stream. The archive_msgs atomic operator provides identical
functionality to that described in the update_msgs atomic operator of the Alert Server. It
receives incoming messages, generates a self-modifying state stream, msg_message_db,
and puts a copy of the new message on the msg_message_db data stream delivered to the
msg_handle_query atomic operator. This operator encapsulates the functionality found in
the resolve_alerts atomic operator of the Alert Server, which is to match incoming
requests for messages against the actual incoming messages themselves. Matches result in
an outgoing data stream, respond_msgs, which delivers the matched message to the
requesting client via the Broker.
11. Name Server
The Name Server, presented in figure 14, plays a critical role in the distributed
network because it represents a single point of reference, mapping logical names to
physical locations, facilitating the addition, removal, and location modification of all
distributed network system resources. In the SAAWC prototype it is functionally
decomposed into a single atomic operator, however, disguising the underlying complexity
which would exist in any full implementation of a Name Server, such as the Domain Name
73
System (DNS), or an X.500 compliant directory service.
The resolve_resource_loc atomic operator is triggered by incoming additions,
deletions, and modifications to the locations of system resources which are carried on the
modobjjoc
Figure 14. Name Server Operator
incoming data stream mod_obj_loc. State stream mod_obj_loc is generated as a response,
and it accomplishes the updating of the internally managed resource database. The
incoming data stream, req_resource, represents the client-generated request for a
particular resource. The corresponding generated response is the data stream
resource_phys_loc which consists of a message indicating the physical location and proper
name of the requested resource. This would then be used by the Broker to initiate a
method invocation, data type retrieval, or file transfer on behalf of the client in order to
74
effect the desired results and complete the requested transaction initiated by the
corresponding client. An example of such a transaction might be the request for retrieval
of a particular map to be displayed by the ADSD client.
12. Print Server
The Print Server, presented in figure 15, is functionally decomposed into three
atomic operators. There are potentially two kinds of print requests: those involving files
of some type, whether opened for reading or writing or even as temporary files serving as
"buffers" or "pipes", and those involving a screen capture or "frame" in a video display.
The check_for_file atomic operator receives the incoming print_request data stream and
determines which of the two print request types is being referenced. If the print_request
references an existing file, then a corresponding request_file data stream, bearing as
content the logical name of the requested file, is generated and forwarded to the Broker
for name resolution and eventual file location and transfer. The requested file is received
on the incoming receive_file data stream, and a corresponding file data stream is then
generated, carrying the referenced file to the spool_file atomic operator for subsequent
delivery to the appropriate printing device. The spool_file atomic operator generates a
corresponding outgoing data stream, job_spooled_msg, which can contain information
pertaining to the print job such as the servicing printer, position of the job in the print
queue, number of pages in the print job, and so on. In the event that a print request is
determined to be referencing a screen grab, the pertinent screen parameters are extracted
from the print request message by the check_for_file atomic operator and
75
Figure 15. Print Server Operator
76
forwarded on the outgoing screen_param data stream. The build_file atomic operator
opens a file for writing and proceeds to create a printable file depicting the referenced
display. The file name is forwarded on the outgoing file_name data stream to the
spool_file atomic operator where the print request is finally resolved and the print job
initiated.
13. Security Server
The Security Server, presented in figure 16, is functionally decomposed into three
independent atomic operators: validate_certificate, validate_key, and validate_signature.
Implementations of each would validate requests for their respective security mechanisms,
search an internally managed database for the appropriate component, and respond on an
outgoing data stream with the requested security measure. The respective outgoing data
streams for each of the atomic operators are also represented as state streams, which
effect modifications to the internally managed databases identifying the issuance of a
security measure, the requesting originator, the requested recipient, and other such
information as might uniquely describe the particular communication session.
Implementations of a Security Server might trigger the issuance of related security
measures from the received request of any one component, might contain the functionality
to create new security components and discard dated or compromised components, and
might also incorporate the functionality to generate alerts to the system administrator in
response to unusual requests for security mechanisms.
77
78
14. Time Server
The Time Server, presented in figure 17, consists of a single atomic operator.
update_time. An implementation of this atomic operator would consist of calls to a
system time function and the conversion of that returned result into a timestamp which
could then be forwarded to the Broker on the outgoing data stream new_time. Though
functionally simple, the Time Server provides a critical service by making possible the
chronological ordering of all system messages, enabling the Broker to enforce the
validation and prioritization rules it has inherited.
15. Track Server
The Track Server, presented in figure 18, consists of three atomic operators
functionally aligned with the atomic operators described in the decompositions of the Alert
Server and the Message Server. The update_filter atomic operator responds to new track
requests contained within the incoming req_tracks data stream by generating a
selfmodifying state stream, filter, which updates the internally managed database of
requested tracks. The receipt of a req_tracks data stream also triggers the release of a
79
Figure 18. Track Server Operator
80
message on the outgoing data stream filter, which carries the newly requested track filter
to the handle_query operator for matching against existing track records. The
update_tracks atomic operator receives new tracks on the incoming feed_tracks data
stream, responding with the state stream track_db which modifies the internally managed
database of tracks, and with the outgoing data stream track_db, which carries a message
to the handle_query atomic operator indicating the existence of the new track. The
handle_query atomic operator responds to filter data streams and to track_db data streams
by attempting to match requests for tracks with notifications of existing tracks, responding
with successful matches on the outgoing data stream respond_tracks. The respond_tracks
data stream bears the announcement of a matched track and delivers the message, via the
Broker, to the client originating the track request.
E. CAPS PROTOTYPE SYSTEM DESCRIPTION LANGUAGE EDITING
Upon conclusion of the drawing phase of the CAPS prototyping process, the next
step was to edit the PSDL code which had been generated by the finished diagrams. All
streams designated as state streams in the diagrams, whether to change the state of
associated operators or to break existing cycles in the prototype, needed to be identified
and declared syntactically within the PSDL code and properly initialized to reflect
beginning states. Their declarations as data streams, the default representation for drawn
streams, needed to be deleted as well, to prevent duplicate declarations in the PSDL code.
All user-defined data types, contemplated during the drawing phase but first
declared in the PSDL editing phase, needed to be syntactically declared and specified as
81
well. In addition, an operator needed to be specified in the user-defined data type
specification to provide default initialization of newly instantiated user-defined objects.
All user-defined data types were specified to contain an operator EMPTY, which simply
returns a reference to a default initialization, implemented in an Ada source code file, of
that particular user-defined data type. For the purposes of this prototype, decisions were
made to identify a large number of user-defined data types, and to give them names meant
to clarify the intended purpose of those data types. The user-defined data types identified
and implemented are: ADMINISTER, ALERT, BITS, CERTIFICATE, DB_RECORD,
DEVICE, KEY, MAP, MESSAGE, PARAM, PATH, SIGNATURE, TIMESTAMP, and
TRACKS. Figure 19 presents the hierarchy of user-defined data types.
The bottom level contains primitive types and component records which are
themselves fields in the composite records of the higher levels. The highest level contains
the user-defined data type BITS, which is designed to be the composite type containing
system messages, and which is formatted to comply with a specific network datalink
protocol. Recognizing the principle of specifying Abstract Data Type (ADT) definitions,
but omitting the ADT implementations as unnecessary for the purposes of the prototype,
most user-defined data types were envisioned to be simple record types consisting of a
primitive data type string component which referenced, perhaps, a configuration file which
contained the necessary attribute and method information for the instantiation of the
identified data type. For example, a KEY user-defined data type would consist simply of a
name field referencing a particular file containing the information necessary to create a
82
Figure 19. User-defined Data Type Hierarchy
83
KEY object, which would then be returned to the KEY request originator for use within
the system.
Finally, all operator and data type specifications which were not defined as being
implemented by decomposed diagrams or primitive types needed to have their source of
implementation identified. This was a simple matter of specifying, in the PSDL code, Ada
source code implementations for all atomic operators and user-defined data types.
F. TRANSLATING AND SCHEDULING
Timing constraints and control constraints were not used for the prototype but
represent future work for improving the quality of the simulation. As a consequence, the
translation process, which produces a compilable Ada source code file to drive the
prototype's execution, and the scheduling process, which determines a solution to the
problem of scheduling the firing of prototype operators given the set constraints, were
enacted and succeeded with no errors.
Future implementation of timing and control constraints would be driven by the
compilation and analysis of real world data describing the amount and type of data flow in
an actual SAAWC network. For example, data could be collected which documents the
number of system-generated tracks or the number of record messages queried and
received by a SAAWC operator over a given period of time. Such data could be collected
through the monitoring of SAAWC operations during an actual exercise, and could be
augmented by the analysis of traffic flow through the network. This latter source of data
84
is monitored by the communications personnel manning the Communications Systems
Control facility.
G. IMPLEMENTATION
Every user-defined data type and atomic operator identified in the PSDL code
required implementation in a separate Ada source code file. The majority of user-defined
data types were implemented as Ada records, containing a string component which
represents a named reference to a configuration or encoded data file, and a Boolean
component indicating whether the nature of the message containing the data type is a
request or a response. The DB_RECORD and TRACKS data types were defined as Ada
records containing integer, string, and TIMESTAMP components which provide
elaborating information on the physical entities they abstract. The ALERT data type was
defined as an Ada record which references DB_RECORDS and TRACKS and provides
amplifying information in the form of integer and string components which provide
location and time context for the referenced DB_RECORDS and TRACKS. Finally, the
MESSAGE data type was implemented as an Ada record referencing all other non-BIT
user-defined data types. Its role in the prototype is analogous to that of a
network-specific protocol packet, representing the atomic unit upon which all atomic
operators designed to function as interfaces within the network can properly perform
receipt, processing, and repackaging operations.
All atomic operators were implemented with the simple functionality of invoking
the system stream output operator to print operator-specific messages to the prototype
85
console text window. Future implementations of the atomic operators would either use
off the shelf components to provide the requisite functionality or skeleton code to simulate
the expected behavior of the operator. For example, the atomic operators designated to
encapsulate the functionality of the DBMS module executing record deletions could be
implemented with a commercially available DBMS product or by a simple linked list
implementation which effects a runtime-only simulation of database management behavior.
H. SUMMARY
The analysis, design, and implementation of the SAAWC prototype in CAPS
involved a number of computing tools and document resources. Satisfaction with the
correct, desired, logical decomposition of the model was the result of numerous drawings
and protracted analysis with drawing and spreadsheet tools. Familiarization with CAPS
itself came with the review of available tutorials and user manuals, and with
experimentation on small-scale prototypes. Improvements to the prototype design often
came in the wake of articulations of the design philosophy in writing, which occurred
during the concurrent editing of this document. Finally, refinement of the prototype
design resulted from numerous critical comments from peers and advisors.
86
V. CONCLUSION
A. SAAWC PROTOTYPE SIGNIFICANCE
The need exists to identify redundancy in the development of automated
information systems for employment in the conduct of command, control, communication,
computing, and intelligence operations both in peace and in time of conflict. The
prerequisite for this identification is a thorough examination and analysis of the data types
and processes, both common support and task-specific, which exist in a particular
operational domain, such as the Sector Anti Air Warfare Center. The SAAWC is a
pertinent candidate and an important model for this analysis, as it incorporates much of the
functionality exhibited by C4I workstations: consumption of real-time and non-real-time
data, dynamic display of operational events in the context of the time and space which
they occupy, redundant means of communication incorporating text, graphic, audio, and
video representations, powerful rules-based analysis through the identification and
presentation of event abstractions and elaborating documentation. Comprehensive and
accurate identification of the data types and processes which will enable the functionality
identified as required by system operators is a critical first step in the design and
implementation of the strictly defined software modules essential to the often touted vision
of "plug and play." Comprehensive analysis of these data types and processes will permit
the development of well-defined interfaces, which in turn will permit the independent and
concurrent development of the common support and task-specific implementations which
will satisfy the functional needs of the operator.
87
B„ CAPS PROTOTYPING
Prototyping is a quick, low-nsk, cost-effective solution to the problem of
developing automated information systems which augment and, increasingly, enable the
conduct of C4I operations. The NPS Computer Aided Prototyping System prototyping of
the SAAWC facilitated a deliberate, logical analysis of the atomic functionality required to
provide those services identified in the SAAWC reference manual as well as those which
are in compliance with the DII COE, GCCS, arid JMCIS architectural guidelines. CAPS
provides an integrated set of tools which permit the specification, design, and
implementation of a prototype to occur within a single integrated development
environment. CAPS also provides the functionality to propagate changes made to the
prototype design in the graphical editor both to the PSDL specification and to the source
code file which drives the executing prototype. Together with the integrated schedule
writing module, these CAPS capabilities increase the likelihood that a developer
attempting to model a distributed, networked system will be able to create a simulation
which more closely fulfills the needs of the operational community.
C. FUTURE WORK
The work completed on the CAPS SAAWC prototype leaves open the possibility
of future work on several levels. The basic upper level SAAWC decomposition could be
used with another SAAWC functional area, for example the Air Defense Mission Display,
replacing the Air Defense Situation Display operator. The upper level decomposition
could be used with some completely unrelated functional operator, such as the Intelligence
88
Analysis Display in the Tactical Air Command Center, replacing the ADSD operator.
Additional composite operators might be identified to provide common services either
partially provided for or omitted in the current upper level decomposition. Such operators
might include a directory service, a resource scheduler service, or a network management
service. Composite operators currently identified in the upper level diagram might be
decomposed differently to identify additional functionality or to provide a greater level of
detail in the currently identified functionality. For example, the update_filter operator in
the Track Server composite operator might be decomposed to convey functionality which
determines whether incoming filter requests are redundant or improperly initialized.
Timing constraints and control constraints could be used within designated operators to
construct a prototype which more accurately behaves like the real-world system it is
simulating. Such behavior could be examined to identify the nodes and datalinks which
present potential system bottlenecks, or which require exceptional processing and
secondary storage resources. Finally, some or all user-defined data types and atomic
operators could be implemented with commercially available components or by improving
the existing Ada source code to more closely resemble the behavior of the simulated
system.
89
APPENDIX A
SAAWC PROTOTYPE SOURCE CODE
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-Project: Thesis - A CAPS Prototype of the SAAWC
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APPENDIX C
ISSUES AND TECHNOLOGIES PERTAINING TO THE DEVELOPMENT OF
TRUSTED PATHS IN A DISTRIBUTED HETEROGENEOUS NETWORK
263
A computing architecture which has come under increasing scrutiny within the computing
industry in recent years is that of the three-tier architecture, based on the concept of separating
business rules functionality from computational service functionality. Computational services
might include infrastructure services such as communication services, data management services,
or security services, or they might include common support application services such as
correlation services and message processing services. [BUTLER96] proposes for the Department
of Defense's (DOD) Global Command Control System (GCCS) a three-tier architecture in which
a middle tier acts as a "broker", instantiating client and server "threads" of execution upon
requests from clients to "subscribe" to specific services. The broker is responsible for determining
not only the appropriateness of client and server subscriptions but also the relative priority of each
request This proposed architecture provides a potential solution to the difficult problem of
discriminating between the real-time packet requirements and the non-real-time packet
requirements of clients and servers communicating across a single, general purpose network.
Though it doesn't describe the protocol for implementing the broker adjudication mechanism, it
does identify a separate place for that functionality to reside, simplifying the implementation of
both the client and the server functionality by isolating them from the complexity of resolving
communication session priorities. For these reasons alone the three-tier architecture is becoming
an attractive alternative, not only within the DOD, but also to private sector businesses currently
operating within a traditional two-tier client/server architecture.
The nature of this computing architecture, however, is by default, distributed. It is also
anticipated that many three-tier implementations would be composed of widely varying computing
264
platforms, due to the economic pressures associated with leveraging investments in legacy
systems and the scaled upgrading of individual systems within a network architecture. The
combination of distributed computing and heterogeneous platforms within a three-tier
architecture, however, poses a significant challenge to the development of secure computing
mechanisms which can provide the degree of trust required by locally developed security policies.
In order to meet this challenge, new security technologies designed for inter-network
environments, and new methods for implementing legacy security technologies must be
investigated as alternatives to the numerous proprietary intra-network security mechanisms in
widespread practice today.
From [CSC97], the following scenario provides motivation for why a typical GCCS
operator might require the use of a trusted path between platforms and across a distributed
processing, heterogeneous network in the course of conducting an operational task:
"...The user inserts his or her Fortezza card into the work station card
reader, authenticates against the card and then downloads an Applet and begins its
execution. The Applet communicates with a server using either CORBA method
invocations or DCE remote procedure calls. The Applet and/or the server with
which it is communicating specify via CORBA/DCE APIs the amount and type of
security to invoke: authenticate the user (or the application server), verify that
transmitted data has not been modified, completely encrypt all communication, etc.
CORBA or DCE, in turn, utilizes the Fortezza and X.500 APIs to perform the user
authentication, encryption, etc. Thus, Java builds its interprocess communication
on top of either CORBA or DCE, which in turn builds its security on top of
Fortezza and X.500."
From the preceding paragraph one can infer a strong commitment on behalf of the DOD's
Defense Information Systems Agency (DISA) toward two trends: distributed computing in a
265
heterogeneous environment, and the use of legacy security mechanisms to implement local
security policies. [CSC97] describes the four cornerstones of a distributed security infrastructure
for the network-centric GCCS: Fortezza, X.500, CORBA, DCE. Fortezza is a standard for
public/private key cryptography and is available as a PC card implementation for those platforms
supporting this mechanism. X.500 is an International Standards Organization (ISO) standard
which specifies a global, hierarchical name service implemented as a distributed database
accessible via Lightweight Directory Access Protocol (LDAP) clients or by applications using the
X.500 client APIs. Entries contained within an X.500 directory are treated as objects, fully
configurable and consisting of a collection of attributes. In the GCCS infrastructure, X.500 will
serve two purposes: as the repository for public key storage in the Fortezza scheme, and as a
white pages for the Defense Message System (DMS), the DOD's projected replacement for the
legacy AUTODIN messaging system. The Object Management Group's (OMG) Common Object
Request Broker Architecture (CORBA) is a proposed architecture for the creation and interaction
of distributed objects, and the Distributed Computing Environment (DCE) is a comparable
architecture standard proposed by the Open Software Foundation (OSF). A deliberate
investigation into the complexity of trusted paths, and the mechanisms required to realize them,
illustrates why the previously described technologies are just a few of many potential solutions to
the problem of secure computing in a distributed, heterogeneous environment.
The fundamental requirement for two processes to communicate securely in a computing
environment is encapsulated in the concept of a trusted path. At the simplest level, a process
currently running in the Central Processing Unit (CPU) might communicate directly with a
266
process driving an Input/Output device, such as a keyboard or harddrive, via an interrupt-driven
data transfer mechanism known as a bus, or with another embedded processor such as might be
found on a video card or modem. At the most complex level, communicating processes might be
executing on physically distinct machines separated by thousands of miles and subjected to the
protocol packaging and unpackaging of network processors responsible for routing data between
the two processes. The establishment of a trusted path between two communicating processes
certainly becomes more difficult to achieve as the number of required cooperating and assisting
processes responsible for that communication increases. Intuitively, it becomes much more of a
challenge to anticipate the numerous "portals" for attacking data transiting over miles and
between machines than it is to plan for the protection of data transiting over inches and within the
confines of a single machine. And yet the computing patterns of today point to an ever-increasing
need to connect more computing machines together via networks and inter-networks that are
increasingly subject to malicious attacks. In order to combat these attacks, current trends in
computing point toward the use of computer-derived manifestations of long trusted human
mechanisms, such as trusted paths and secure domains of operation, through the use of
certificates of trust, encryption of data, and signatures as the means for guaranteeing, respectively,
authenticity, secrecy, and integrity of the data transiting between two communicating processes.
Demonstrating a mechanism for the establishment of a local trusted path, the
[GARFINKEL96] text describes a procedure between the operating system and the login program
which is invoked via signals from the keyboard receiving its input from the human operator.
Specifically, the operating system employs a mechanism to kill all running processes upon receipt
267
of a particular signal from the keyboard. This policy ensures that the only running processes are
those legitimate processes associated with the real operating system. What makes this type of
trusted path mechanism possible is the presence of both a direct path between devices and a
proprietary addressing scheme, i.e., MCA, ISA, IRQ, etc., to foil the attempt of any malicious
process attempting to masquerade as a legitimate process.
But establishing direct and trusted paths between processes identified by non-standard,
close-ended addressing schemes, such as the mentioned bus schemes, is neither practical nor even
interesting, given the scale in which people expect to compute and communicate today. In order
to close the physical distance between human and computing activities we've achieved the affect
of logical collocation through the implementation of standardized datalink, network, and
inter-network-level computing protocols. And though we've significantly complicated the task of
establishing trusted paths between communicating processes, our need for trusted paths has only
increased: the speed at which we've connected together our computing devices is exceeded only
by the speed at which we’ve devised ways to automate so many human activities. Further
complicating the task of creating and sustaining trusted paths is the shift in thinking about the
ways in which we program: from procedural to object-oriented, from writing code to automate
the conduct of a transaction to writing code which simulates two or more transacting objects. So
not only are we concerned with guaranteeing the authenticity, secrecy, and integrity of transiting
data, but also with programming transiting binary globs of intelligence which can alter the way in
which our two (or more) processes are communicating to more closely mirror the real world
events we seek to automate. But if the future of computing points toward an ever-increasing
268
need to communicate over inter-networks, as client objects, server objects, and middle-tier broker
objects, and within the new paradigm of object-oriented programming which shifts focus from
programming the procedural to programming the behavior and the interactions of objects, then we
need to identify the means with which we can provide the authenticity, secrecy, and integrity that
communicating processes require to establish a trusted path in this new environment. Perhaps the
widely endorsed, object-oriented standard middleware architecture, CORBA, and the rapidly
growing, object-oriented programming language, Java, are the best tools currently available to
developers to achieve those means. Furthermore, there exist projects, such as Trusted
Information Systems' (TIS) SIGMA, which have examined the capabilities of these development
and runtime environments and derived potential solutions to the problem of trusted
communication between objects over an inter-network.
There are two principal advantages to the developer using Java and CORBA tools
together to develop for a distributed, heterogeneous computing environment composed of an
array of different computer architectures, operating systems, and network protocols. The
CORBA specification provides an environment and a standard for writing and reading object
interfaces. These allow the user to preserve his investment in legacy code by "wrapping" these
legacy "objects" in a standard Interface Definition Language (IDL) interface, which is then
propagated across the Object Request Broker, or "ORB" bus, so that client objects can recognize
and invoke the published methods of the server objects. The Java standard, on the other hand,
provides a tool with which the developer can create, in any Java development environment, the
implementation for either the client or server objects, or both, with the result that the compiled
269
Java "bytecode" is portable across any computing platform running the language standard Java
Virtual Machine (JVM). This makes it an attractive alternative to writing and compiling the same
objects on each of many desired platforms. What is compelling about the capabilities inherent in
these two software development standards is that users can take advantage of existing legacy
authentication mechanisms such as Kerberos servers and encryption mechanisms such as Fortezza
and concentrate on building secure clients and middle-tier brokers guaranteed to run on any
platform running a JVM. [ORFALI97] describes CORBA as bringing to distributed computing
"network transparency" while Java brings to heterogeneous computing "implementation
transparency."
A CORBA/Java architecture is designed to provide the infrastructure for moving objects
across a Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol (TCP/IP) network and for enabling
communication between those objects. It is proposed as an alternative architecture to that
provided by existing TCP/IP distributed processing protocols such as Common Gateway
Interface/HyperText Transfer Protocol (CGI/HTTP), JavaSoft’s Remote Method Invocation
(RMI), and Microsoft's Distributed Component Object Model (DCOM). The CGI/HTTP
architecture is currently the most popular model for providing the means for portable clients
(generally a JVM running in a Web Browser) to access data from legacy database servers. While
this functionality provides a significant leap over previous proprietary architectures for
client/server distributed computing, it does not address the need to build client and server objects
which can determine requirements and request services dynamically, at runtime. RMI and
DCOM, on the other hand, do provide the architecture for distributed computing with objects.
270
However, they are proprietary solutions with acceptance limited to specific targeted communities.
CORBA is the standard developed by the OMG which has been embraced by over 700 computing
industry companies. Likewise, the Java language is being widely embraced for its highly
recognizable syntax (C, C++ like), its strong software engineering attributes (Ada95 like), its
strong object-oriented nature (Smalltalk like), and its support for key distributed object-oriented
computing concepts such as multiple threads of execution and its built-in networking Application
Programming Interfaces (APIs). Finally, a key component of the CORB A/Java architecture is the
increasing acceptance and deployment in commercial products of the Internet Inter-ORB Protocol
(HOP), a principal TCP/IP protocol standard for managing communication between objects and
different ORBs on a TCP/IP network, discussed in greater detail later.
The CORBA specification is purposefully neutral with regard to the programming
language of choice for the implementation of security policy objects, or other CORBA objects for
that matter. Java is a leading candidate for several reasons: the Java language specification brings
to the table a set of language-specific mechanisms for achieving object-oriented programming,
multi-threaded performance, and dynamic deallocation of memory no longer in use; it also brings
a runtime environment with specific rules for trusted access to system resources. Given the
growing popularity of the JVM runtime environment as a host environment for the execution of
network distributed mobile code, and anticipating a day when JVM-hosted applets might be
performing the preponderance of computation at the client level, an investigation into the security
policy and mechanisms of the JVM is highly relevant. Because even the most robust
authentication mechanisms, encryption algorithms, and integrity-checking schemes are trivial
271
obstacles to a malicious individual with the capability to manipulate the runtime environment
itself.
The JVM presents a seemingly uniform interface to the Java programmer which permits
him to concentrate on writing classes which may invoke (and assume the automatic invocation) of
the targeted JVM security mechanisms, regardless of the platform that JVM is running on. In
reality, however, each JVM is in fact, platform-specific. JVM vendors are given great leeway to
pick, choose, and implement the type and degree of security mechanisms identified in the JVM
specification. This flexibility allows for Applet viewers (JVMs) to be written for inherently more
trusted environments, such as a corporate intranet or secure Local Area Network (LAN), as well
as for untrusted environments, such as a general-purpose, commercially distributed Web browser
might be used in. The specification identifies two layers of defense: the first is a mechanism for
generating and validating digital signatures; the second is a policy, the "sandbox," which defines
the system resources which are within and off-limits to the executable mobile code. Applets with
validated signatures are permitted the same execution privileges as locally stored application code.
Locally stored application code, though not guaranteed to be free of malicious code, is assumed
to be; the reality being that any executable code, regardless of origin, must ultimately be given the
green light or rejected by a user at some point in time, based upon local procedures for obtaining
and loading that code to local storage. The JVM uses three mechanisms to implement its sandbox
policy: the Bytecode Verifier, the Class Loader, and the Security Manager. [FLANAGAN96]
lists the following privileges unavailable to an unauthorized Applet: reads, writes, deletions, and
renaming of files; creating, removing, and viewing directories; searching for a file or reading a
272
file’s attributes; creating network connections to any computer other than the originating host;
listening for or accepting network connections on any local ports; creating a top-level window
without indicating that the window is "untrusted"; obtaining current user name or home directory;
defining system properties; running other programs locally; causing the Java Interpreter to exit;
loading dynamic libraries locally; creating or manipulating threads that are not part of the Applet's
ThreadGroup; manipulating any ThreadGroup other than its own; creating a ClassLoader or
Security Manager object; specifying network control classes; accessing or loading classes in any
package not in the standard API eight; or defining classes that are part of packages on the local
system.
The first of the JVM security mechanisms, the Bytecode Verifier, has the responsibility for
checking downloaded executable code for namespace or type conversion violations.
[FLANAGAN96] notes that the Bytecode Verifier ensures that the code is valid JVM code,
neither overflows nor underflows the stack, does not use registers incorrectly, and does not
convert data types illegally. The principle concern for the Bytecode Verifier is that malicious
code might forge pointers or use memory arithmetic to escape the "sandbox" and gain access to
regions of memory assigned to other applications or to the operating system. An additional
concern to the Bytecode Verifier is that malicious code might cause the Java Interpreter to
become unstable and take advantage of resulting or previously existing security holes. The
responsibility of the ClassLoader is to dictate the runtime environment by installing each Applet in
its own namespace and by prohibiting Applets from seeing and referencing classes from outside of
its namespace. This denies a malicious Applet the opportunity to replace the Java API class
273
libraries with its own versions. Finally, the Java Security Manager mechanism consists of a
collection of mechanisms, or methods, which can be used by the system to verify whether or not
certain operations are allowed in the current runtime environment. It is the Security Manager
object instantiated by a particular Applet viewer which enforces the security policy specified by
that JVM.
Though the Java language specification is inherently network and distributed computing
oriented, it still must rely upon some lower level protocol to enable the movement of those
distributed objects. Distributed computing which could be achieved on a large-scale and in a
non-proprietary fashion arrived in the mid-1980s with the work of Sun Microsystems and UC
Berkeley on the Remote Procedure Call (RPC) protocol. This established a mechanism for
allowing a process to invoke the computational functionality of a remote machine across a
TCP/IP network. The principle advantage that invoking object methods via a CORBA ORB has
over more traditional methods of invoking functions across a network, such as RPC, is that, with
RPC, the called function has no state. The calling object is invoking a statically determined
function with statically determined data sets. With CORBA, on the other hand, the calling object
is invoking a specific function (method) of an object which has state, and the results of the call are
dependent upon the dynamically determined condition of the called object's data sets (attributes)
at the time of the call. In other words, the polymorphic behavior that we have come to expect in
local computations in programs written in languages which support that behavior, can now be
realized across a network in a distributed, heterogeneous computing environment. Specifically,
[ORFAL197] describes how a CORBA ORB provides for either the statically defined or the
274
dynamically discovered invocation of remote object methods, language-neutral data types,
runtime tables of data (metadata) which allow client objects to dynamically discover the methods
of server objects, and transparency to the programmer with regard to issues of transport, client
and server location, object activation, and byte ordering.
In addition to the ORB, which dictates the mechanism for invoking the methods of remote
objects, the most recently adopted CORBA specification, CORBA 2.0 approved in 1995, defines
a set of 16 CORBA system-level services which define the means for creating, naming, copying,
moving, deleting, registering, locking, relating, and publishing objects and information about those
objects. These services also include rules for committing on transactions between objects, a
superset of Structured Query Language (SQL) operations to support access to Database
Management Systems (DBMS), a licensing service to support fair and mediated access to certain
objects, a time service to synchronize interactions between objects, and a security service, defined
below in greater detail, which specifies rules for authentication, access control lists,
confidentiality, and non-repudiation. [ORFALI97] describes the advantages of developing in a
CORBA environment by using the example of developing a car. The developer can create a car
"component" by inheriting concurrency, persistence, and transaction awareness from the defined
CORBA services. Similarly, a developer could create security policy objects which simplify the
means by which security policy is created, published, and enforced across a heterogeneous
network.
The CORBA security environment defined in the CORBA 2.0 specification describes a
security model and architecture, and it leaves the selection of security mechanisms to apply to that
275
model up to the implementor. Possible mechanisms for employment in a CORBA security model
include Kerberos, Secure RPC, and Secure European System for Applications in a Multivendor
Environment (SESAME). The principle motive of the people responsible for developing this
specification was to decouple the implementation of security mechanisms from the implementation
of client and server processes and applications. In other words, developers would be free to
implement security mechanisms into their client and server objects, but could also expect to
receive the protections offered by authentication, access controls, encryption, signing, and
auditing which can be designed into the ORB itself by the ORB vendors. As a means to achieving
these security protections, it is the intention of the specification authors that developers of
CORBA security mechanisms will provide for a Credentials object, created when a user logs in or
a process is invoked, which will contain the user's/processes' privileges regarding roles, groups,
and security clearance. Objects then invoked by the ORB will access the Credentials object as a
first step in determining the identity and privileges of the invoking object.
A recurring theme in the discussions of secure computing within a heterogeneous,
distributed computing architecture is the notion of a trusted intra-network, or secure domain. In
their SIGMA project, TIS speaks of these domains as "enclaves." The project managers selected
the term enclave to describe a network environment which retains interoperability with other
networks but is nevertheless protected from those outside networks through locally established
security policies. The [GARFINKEL96] text presumes that the nature of trust within the enclaves
themselves is assured through traditional measures such as good hiring practices, good account
administration, good password assignment, and good physical security of the local area network.
276
For this reason the text is primarily devoted to the discussion of inter-network security. In
military computing, where existing personnel and weaponry form a strong barrier to potential
physical threats to a network, and where a rigid policy regarding the recruitment of candidates
and the training of operators forms a significant first layer of defense, we make the same
assumptions regarding the security of our own enclaves with the result that we, too, are
increasingly concerned with the inter-enclave threats against which our enclaves are most
vulnerable. [GARFINKEL96] describes in great detail the policies and mechanisms available to
protect these trusted enclaves from networks external to them through a combination of chokes
and gateways which, when properly configured, constitute a firewall; as well as through simpler,
process-independent mechanisms such as wrappers. Both of these constitute aggressive
mechanisms for the rigid filtering of suspicious IP packets and for the use of proxy processes
which handle internal and external requests for service. But current firewall mechanisms are
incapable of completely addressing the complex security needs of objects which are interacting
across the inter-network. It is the interconnection between these trusted and untrusted enclaves,
the gateway and the policies and mechanisms which compose the gateway, which is the target of
efforts to combat threats to the network and is the focus of effort in the SIGMA project.
TIS's SIGMA project is a research effort developed to investigate and prototype a
collection of security mechanisms which implement domain-specific security policies between
trusted and untrusted systems across a heterogeneous distributed computing environment based
on CORBA interoperability. From "http://www.tis.com/docs/research/distributed/sigma.html",
the purpose of SIGMA is threefold:
277
Develop security mechanisms for protecting an enclave by controlling access by
other enclaves with which it interoperates.
Improve the state of the art of security mechanisms for object-oriented distributed
systems.
Extend interoperability access controls to apply to heterogeneous security
mechanisms and disparate policies of different enclaves.
The SIGMA project recognizes and addresses the need for communication between three
distinct enclave types: a Multi-Level System (MLS) enclave in which information is controlled by
strong label-based separation mechanisms; a Domain and Type Enforcement (DTE) enclave in
which information is subject to complex role-based policies; and a Commercial Off The Shelf
(COTS) enclave, in which information is subject to unknown or untrusted security policies. The
project further recognizes that even among like enclave types, there will be differences in security
policies, security mechanisms, and levels of assurance. [BENZEL96] documents an analysis of
security policies and mechanisms in the current CORBA security specification and concludes the
following topics are not adequately addressed: required security functionality for interoperability
between enclaves and high assurance mechanisms for interoperability within enclaves.
[BENZEL96] identifies one significant obstacle facing the CORBA security object
developer as being the large-scale deficiency in common commercially sold Operating Systems to
guarantee that developed security components cannot be bypassed or tampered with.
Contributing to this concern, the authors of the study have concluded that, due to performance
concerns, ORB implementations largely consist of library modules residing in the same process
address space as the client and server object processes they are designed to support. This
278
prevents the establishment of independent security mechanisms which can run, monitor, and
interrupt questionable transactions.
As mentioned previously, the question of inter-enclave security is one which can be
considered outside of the context of the given security policies and mechanisms of the enclave
itself. The authors in [BENZEL96] stress that the single point of control for a network that is the
network gateway is not so much a design strategy as much as a consequence of network
architecture. This consequence presents an opportunity for the network security planner to
perhaps compensate for the security weaknesses inherent in his deployed Operating Systems:
whatever high-assurance security mechanisms may be absent in local OS’s can be deployed at the
network gateway in the form of choke mechanisms which provide IP packet-level monitoring and
discarding, and in the form of gate mechanisms which provide proxy applications for
accomplishing remote processing. Any security mechanisms implemented at the OS, application,
or ORB level within the enclave only complement those established at the network gateway and
constitute part of a "defense in depth" security policy and a prudent means for dictating the
practice of secure computing within the enclave.
In SIGMA project terminology, the single point of access control for the network in
question is called the ORB Gateway. Like a network firewall, the ORB Gateway consists of a set
of security mechanisms which examine incoming and outgoing data to determine its compliance
with the network security policy. Unlike a firewall, though, the ORB Gateway performs its
functions by interrogating, authenticating, and validating objects and object requests before
permitting their movement into and out of the enclave. The methodology for implementing the
279
ORB Gateway security mechanisms is the concept of DTE. It is through the distinct DTE
signature of each application service, method, object, object attribute, and invoking object
attribute that the security mechanisms of the ORB Gateway are able to establish the degree of
trust specified by the network security policy.
A principle concern of CORBA ORB and CORBA object developers, and of the SIGMA
project, is the movement of objects, security-related or otherwise, through that single point of
access and across the distributed, heterogeneous network. In an environment in which
competing, distributed, object-oriented computing paradigms abound, there is a requirement for a
TCP/IP-based protocol which enables communication between objects managed by different
ORBs. That protocol is the Internet Inter-ORB Protocol (HOP), and it represents the common
language between different ORBs which permits one ORB to correctly interpret the requests and
responses of another, dissimilar ORB. HOP makes the assumption that it is using a
connection-oriented TCP session and it specifies to each ORB the acceptable data representation
and message formatting. This is accomplished through Common Data Representation (CDR)
coding, which defines a coding for all Interface Definition Language (IDL) data types, including
primitive types, structured types, and object references. However, since most current firewalls do
not support the capability to identify and service HOP packets, the SIGMA project seeks to
configure a traditional network firewall which sends HOP packets to an ORB Gateway configured
to handle only HOP traffic. Incorporating a firewall feature known as a "plug", the firewall can be
configured to forward to the ORB Gateway all HOP traffic received on a particular TCP port. An
additional reason for isolating HOP packet processing from the network firewall is the complexity
280
of that processing, which contradicts the goal of incorporating small, simple, well-documented
functionality within the firewall to filter out suspicious data packets.
[BENZEL96] identifies three forms of restriction performed by the ORB Gateway which
demonstrate how an ORB Gateway matches and exceeds the capability for secure distributed
computing that is provided by traditional firewalls. The first restriction is on the enclave-resident
CORBA-based application services available to outside users. The CORBA model provides for
both the static and dynamic discovery of application services through the publishing of interface
definitions in a common IDL. The ORB Gateway will be configured with information pertaining
to the enclave application services, including which services are accessible to outside users and
over which communication ports those services may be requested. The second restriction is on
the specific methods which can be invoked by an outsider; perhaps a subset of those methods
offered by the CORBA server object. Reasons for restricting access to certain methods might be
to provide read-only or write-only access to a particular server object in order to dictate in what
way client objects may and may not alter the state of the server object. The enforcement of
method restriction is controlled by the composition of a configuration list of methods used by the
ORB Gateway to implement the enclave security policy. A third restriction encapsulates what is
unique about CORBA and object-oriented programming: the restriction of specific objects to
requesting objects without regard to the presence or absence of restrictions specified for access to
methods or services as mentioned above.
[BENZEL96] identifies two approaches for an ORB Gateway using authentication data to
restrict outside access to enclave CORBA objects. In the first approach, access checks are
281
performed by the ORB Gateway based upon a reconciliation between the contents of locally held
configuration data and the object request message data. Authentication of the object request is
handled internally, allowing the security administrator to develop separate and distinct security
policies regarding access control for users within and outside of his enclave. In the second
approach, access checks are not performed. Instead, the authentication mechanisms and data of
the foreign enclave are translated into the comparable authentication mechanisms and data of the
local enclave. With the bundled authentication data, or "credentials", the object request can be
passed into the enclave where the ORB can make the appropriate access control decisions just as
if the request had been initiated from within the enclave itself. This approach has the advantage
that all access control decisions to an enclave object can be made at a central point, perhaps
simplifying the administration of mechanisms such as access control lists.
Together, the Java language specification, the CORBA specification, and TIS’s SIGMA
project represent three new technologies which can significantly enhance the establishment of the
trusted paths between communicating processes which GCCS operators require in a distributed,
heterogeneous network. TIS's approach to establishing trusted paths between enclaves of
computer networks is noteworthy for two reasons: its recognition that objects present the most
promising method for encapsulating the security credentials of a given person or process, and its
adherence to an open architecture which permits interoperability between competing ORB
implementations and between enclaves with significantly varying internal security policies. The
CORBA standard provides a framework both for supporting the interoperability between different
proprietary object implementations and for defining an environment in which legacy
282
implementations can interact with fully object-oriented implementations. Finally, the Java
language specification provides the basis for multi-threaded processing, platform-indepedent
Graphical User Interface (GUI) construction, and built-in support for inter-networking which
permits development of the security mechanisms prescribed by CORBA and SIGMA and are
necessary for the establishment of trusted paths between users and processes in a distributed,
heterogeneous computing environment.
283
LIST OF REFERENCES
[BENZEL96]
Benzel, Sebes, SIGMA: Security for Distributed Object
Interoperability Between Trusted and Untrusted Systems, Trusted
Information Systems Inc., ACS AC Conference, 1996.
[BUTLER96]
Butler, Diskin, Howes, Jordan, Architectural Design of a
Common Operating Environment, IEEE Software, November
1996.
[CSC97]
Burchell, GCCS/DII COE System Integration Support, Technical
Report/Study: GCCS Strategic Technical Architecture, February,
1997.
[FLANAGAN96]
Flanagan, Java in a Nutshell, O'Reilly and Associates, Inc., 1996.
[GARFINKEL96]
Garfinkel, Spafford, Practical UNIX and Internet Security, O'Reilly
and Associates, Inc., 1996.
[JMCIS97]
PMW 171, Joint Maritime Command Information System
(JMCIS) '98 Single Acquisition Management Plan (SAMP),
January 1997.
[JOINT95]
Doctrine for Command, Control, Communications and Computer
(C4) Systems Support for Joint Operations, Joint Pub 6-0, Joint
Chiefs of Staff, Washington, D.C., May, 1995.
[MOXLEY96-1]
Moxley, Howes, The Global Command and Control System:
Providing C4I Support to the Warrior through an Evolving
Architecture, Proceedings of the Second International Command
& Control Research & Technology Symposium, September 1996.
[MOXLEY96-2]
Moxley, On the Specification of Complex Software Systems,
Proceedings of the Second IEEE International Conference on
Engineering of Complex Computer Systems, October 1996.
[ORFALI97]
Orfali, Harkey, Client! Server Programming with Java and CORBA,
Wiley Computer Publishing, 1997.
[SAAWC95]
MCCDC, Coordinating Draft for FMFRP 5-55, Marine Sector
Antiair Warfare Coordinator Handbook, March 1995.
285
[SHING95]
Shing, Luqi, Functional Specification and Prototyping for a
Generic C3I Workstation, Proceedings of the First International
Symposium on Command and Control Technology and Research,
June 1995.
286
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