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COLLEGE LIBRARY
p-RDPERTY OF
THE PSYCHOLOGICAL CLINIC
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in 2010 with funding from
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Tfte^uufttment ^ S^ciat (^^m^S^eU^tee
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PROPERTY OF
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Educational Test Bureau
EciocAiioihiiAL Publishers, Inc.
Copyright 1953 by EDUCATIONAL TEST BUREAU
ISDVCATIOIVAL. PUBIylSHERS, Inc.
Printed in U.S.A.
To the mcmorij of
EDWARD RANSOME JOHNSTONE
Wir lernen so v'iel als wir leben,
und wissen so viel als wir wirken.
— Unidentified.
Acknowledgments
There is a destiny that makes us brothers.
None goes his way alone.
All that we send into the lives of others
Comes back into our oicn. — Edwin Markliam
^ -^ It is hardly possible to make due acknowledgment for the
varied assistance received in a work of this kind. One feek
that he is only the agent through whom many influences con-
verge to a new end. Especially is this true when the outcome
epitomizes a lifetime of varied observation, study, and instruc-
tion.
The initial inspiration for the present work may be said
to date from undergraduate association with the late Prof,
Guy M. Whipple, at Cornell, and the continuing interest in
human development which he generously communicated to me.
This beginning was augmented by intimate association with
Henry H. Goddard in the days when the work of Binet, and
research with the feeble-minded, were yielding a new orienta-
tion and a more profitable approach in the field of human
development. I am also deeply indebted to many other associates
and teachers whose specific influence it is now difficult to trace
but which colors this entire volume.
Likewise the whole atmosphere within which this research
has been conducted, and the cooperative sharing of ideas and
effort, have afforded conditions and aid highly favorable to th^
present result. For this setting, and for generous support and
freedom in working conditions, grateful credit is accorded the
late Edward R. Johnstone, former Director of The Training
School at Vineland, whose enthusiasm for research and the use
of scientific method contributed so heavily to the welfare and
the happiness of both normal and handicapped children. His
successor, Walter Jacob, and the Board of Trustees of The
Training School, continued that support in the later stages of
this work.
Previous efforts are to be found in my early work on job
analysis and training in correctional institutions in collabora-
tion with Burdette G. Lewis and the late Wm. J. Ellis, at a
time when Stanley D. Porteus was independently engaged in
similar work on industrial and social rating scales; in work
with Lloyd N. Yepsen which eventuated in his social adjust-
ment score card; in association with Myra W. Kuenzel in the
construction of a scale of industrial virtues ; and in cooperation
viii Acknowledgments
with Dr. Henry A. Cotton in the preparation of a scale for
measuring mental deterioration and recovery.
These maiieiivers anticipated the work on the present Scale.
This was concretely begim with the assistance of S. Geraldine
Longwell, now my wife, while studying the improvement of
cerebral palsy patients receiving muscle training in collabora-
tion with Dr. Winthrop M, Phelps. The initial form of the Scale
and the first condensed manual were products of joint work
which was extended from the birth-palsied to the feeble-
minded, then to the normal, to variously handicapped groups,
and to multiple social uses.
This initial formulation of the Scale was materially
assisted by seminar and staff discussions with the author's
junior colleagues at the Vineland Laboratory. Among these,
especially helpful aid was obtained from J. Thomas Mclntire,
A. Douglas Glanville, and George Kreezer. At this period I also
drew heavily on the more recent work in the literature of
child development which has had such a vigorous expression
during the past thirty years.
I am especially indebted to Katherine Preston Bradway for
critical suggestions on method, for all data constituting the
initial standardization, for records on the first re-examinations
of normal subjects, for initial statistical treatment of data, for
exploratory studies with deaf and with blind subjects and in the
field of inheritance, and especially for work on the Thomson
method and other statistical devices for item evaluation, scale
calibration and validation. Mrs. Bradway also critically re-
viewed the final manuscript.
Further collection, tabulation and revised treatment of
data were accomplished by Kathryn Fitch Deacon. She par-
ticipated also in the successive series of examinations of the
normal growth study, in several application studies, in analyz-
ing miscellaneous data, in collating the work of collaborating
students at other centers, and in critical reading of the present
volume.
Thanks are due the members of the Vineland research staff
who collaborated in various exploratory applications of the
Scale, to other authors and to libraries for access to unpublished
studies, to those institutional superintendents and school au-
thorities who cordially offered access to special populations
for trial investigations, to Marianne H. Wasson for translating
the study by Helmut von Bracken, to Noemi Morales for as-
Acknowledgments ix
sistance in translating the Scale into Spanish, to my son Eugene
E. Doll for counsel, several exploratory studies, and helpful
review of the manuscript, and to the many research workers
and correspondents whose critical interest induced specific
improvements in formulation.
We are specifically indebted to the people of Vineland for
their cooperative assistance in receiving our examiners and
cordially assisting us in gathering of data. The Mothers Re-
search Club of Vineland, at whose annual meetings at the Vine-
land Laboratory the early phases of this work were profitably
discussed, gave invaluable early encouragement. Our initial
normative data were obtained from the children of these par-
ents in the initial stages of the investigation. Assistance was
received also from a similar group associated with the paro-
chial schools, through whom favorable home visiting contacts
were established. Further aid was received from the local pub-
lic school authorities and teachers.
The initial and revised preparation of manuscript has been
the work of Florence C. Matlack, whose continuing sympathetic
understanding, encouragement, and protection from distractions
have contributed indispensably to bringing this work to print.
I am also indebted to her for continuing assistance in reviewing
and recalculating much of the data, preparing the final graphs
and the index, and faithfully seeing the work through over
fifteen arduous years.
To Lillian Note Dilg I owe cordial thanks for her unflag-
ging editorial support and unlimited good will during the nearly
four years of publication stages. And to the Educational Test
Bureau for sparing no effort in the production. Also to Merle
W. Tate for a critical reading of the statistical treatment of
the basic data.
Appreciation is expressed to Raymond S. Patterson and the
John Hancock Mutual Life Insurance Company for permission
to use the item illustrations from their publication "Your
Child Grows up". These interpretative sketches were prepared
by Hazel Hoecker, New York City.
Thanks are due the "children" and staff of The Training
School at Vineland, New Jersey, for their cheerful collabora-
tion. Only those at the immediate scene can know the cordial
and effective manner and extent of their support. To all
those who "belong" and have given so generously I express
regi-et and pride that the list is too long for personal mention.
X Acknowledgments
And over all is the aura of inspiration and esteem of Agnes
Martz Doll and our gi'owing sons Eugene and Bruce. Her
confidence in me, and the home laboratory supplied by them,
afforded a major source of motives and materials.
What can be said for indebtedness to the professional
literature? Truly yesterday today was tomorrow; there is
nothing new under the sun; we pillage the common heritage;
all men are brothers. To burden this text with the library
sources on which much of it is based, from which inspiration
and utility have been freely drawn, or toward which warrant
for authoritative support is directed, seems as futile as it would
inevitably be tiresome. Since the original copy was either
conceived or actually formulated prior to 1938 it is particularly
difficult to document works which have appeared since about
that date, although some supporting references are included,
and specific contributions on the uses of the Social Scale are
cited. The interested reader will find adequate recent treatment
and ample references to topical backgi'ound in the scholarly
"Manual of Child Psychology" edited by Leonard Carmichael.
God keep me froyn ever completing anything. This lohole
hook is but a draft — Nay, but the draft of a draft. Oh, Time,
Strength, Cash, and Patience! — Herman Melville
Ederar A. Doll
VINELAND, NEW JERSEY
January, 1958
Contents
Acknowledgments ----- _ vii
Tables and Figures ------ xvii
Part I — Philosophy of the Method
Chapter 1. Introduction
Epitome _______ 1
Origin of the Scale ______ 4
Progress Schedule ______ 6
Further Evolution ______ 7
References _______ g
Chapter 2, Postulates
Major Premises ______ 10
Biological Orientation - - - - - 11
Growth Potentials ______ 12
Environmental Modifiability _____ 14
Behavior Modalities ______ 14
Behavioral Components _____ 15
Focus of Behavior - - - - — - 15
Maturation Principle ______ 16
Categorical Aspects _-__-- 17
Environmental Circumstances - - - - 19
References _______ 20
Chapter 3. The Problem of Measurement
Common Observations ----- 23
Stages of Maturation - - - - - - 25
Techniques of Social Appraisal - - - - 27
Difficulties Encountered _____ 33
Example of Analytic Method ----- 35
References _______ 37
Part II — Construction of Social Maturity Scale
Chapter 4. Design of the Scale
General Plan __----_ 39
Requirements __ — - — — — 42
Range of Application - — _ — — — 44
Interview Method ______ 45
Calibration Principle ------ 46
Point Scale Principle ------ 48
Year Scale Principle ------ 48
Final Scale _______ 50
Chapter 5. Item Criteria
General Considerations ------ 55
Item Formulation ______ 59
Practicability of Items _____ 63
Item Scoring in re Placement _ _ _ _ 64
Habitual Performance - - — — — 65
xi
Contents
Chapter 6. Item Specification
Orientation _--____ 67
Item Graphs -------71
Self-Help General Category ----- 75
Summary -------93
Self-Help Eating Category ----- 96
Summary ------- 110
Self-Help Dressing Category ----- 112
Summary ------- 129
Locomotion Category ------ 131
Summary ------- 145
Occupation Category ------ 149
Summary ------- 180
Communication Category ----- 185
Summary ------- 206
Self-Direction Category ----- 210
Summary ------- 228
Socialization Category ----- 231
Summary ------- 255
General Summary _-_- — - 259
Part III — Administration of the Scale
Chapter 7. Procedures and Scoring
General Features _-__-- 266
Rapport with Informants ----- 267
Interview Technique - - — - — - 270
Categorical Sequences _ - _ _ - 272
Habitual Performance ----- 277
Scoring Principles ------ 278
Scoring Summary ___--- 283
Total Scores ------- 287
SA Scores - - - - - - - 288
Special Procedures ------ 291
Self-Informing ------ 292
Double Scoring ------ 292
Retrospective Examining - - - - 293
Multiple Informants ----- 296
History and Literature ----- 297
Description and Counseling - - - - 297
Informal Use ------ 298
Chapter 8. Illustrative Examinations
Case I — Normal Preschool Child - - - - 299
Case II — Superior Adult ----- 305
Case III — Constitutionally Inferior Adult - - - 309
Case IV — Deteriorated Adult - - _ _ 323
Case IV — At Prime - - - __ 330
Case V — Blind Adult - _ _ _ _ 335
xii
Contents
Part IV — Standardization and Validation
Chapter 9. Normative Standardization
Preliminary Experimentation ----- 347
Normative Scene ______ 349
Selection of S's - - - - - - 352
Collection of Data --____ 357
Treatment of Data ------ 353
Normative Results --_-__ 354
Item Sex Diflferences ----- 365
Total Item Scaling - - - _ _ 363
Total Scores -_-___ 368
Year Scale ______ 373
SA and SQ Scores - - - _ _ 374
LA - SA Distributions - - _ - _ 379
LA - SQ Distributions ----- 330
Absolute Scaling ------ 38O
Reliability -_-___ 330
Validity ------- 38I
Types of Scores ------ 382
Scattering ______ 334
SQ and Social Status ----- 386
Statistical Cautions - - - _ _ 388
References ------- 388
Chapter 10. Item Validation — Feeble-Minded Subjects
Institutional Scene ------ 390
Description of S's - - - - - - 395
Sex Diflferences ------ 490
Item Validation ---_-_ 491
Differential Items -_-_-_ 495
Influence of LA ------ 497
Types of Scores --___- 493
Scattering --__--_ 412
Chapter 11. Scale Validation — V. T. S. Subjects
Analysis of Total Scores - - - _ _ 414
Influence of LA and MA - - _ - _ 416
Quotient Scores ---_-_ 423
SA - MA Differences ------ 427
Summary of Relationships ----- 428
Reliability of Measurement - - - - _ 429
Self-Informing --__-_ 432
Validity _______ 433
Sources of Error _---__ 434
VTS Residual S's - - - - _ - 435
Insufficient Data - - - - - _ 436
Visually Handicapped S's - - - - - 436
Auditory Handicaps _____ 437
Aphasic S's ----- - 437
Crippled S's ------ 437
Convulsive Seizures ----- 437
xiii
Contents
VTS Residual S's (contU)
Deteriorating S's - ~ - - - - 438
Mentally Disturbed S's - - - - - 438
Diagnosis Deferred _ _ _ _ - 438
Constitutionally Inferior ----- 438
Borderline Dull-Normal ----- 439
Influence of Secondary Variables _ - - - 440
Length of Residence _ - _ - _ 440
Paternal Occupation ----- 442
Etiology ------- 444
Mongoloid Type ------ 446
References -__-- — - 447
Part V — Applications
Chapter 12. Varieties of Uses
Normative Maturation _____ 449
Social Studies -------450
Education - - - - - - - 452
The Handicapped ______ 453
Executive Uses ______ 454
Field and Laboratory Studies _ - - _ _ 456
Casework -_--_-_ 457
Literature - - - - - - - 458
Chapter 13. Exploratory Studies
Growth Rates -_--__ 460
Normative S's - - - - - - 460
Mentally Deficient S's - - - - - 462
Physically Handicapped S's _ _ _ _ 465
Inheritance ___---_ 466
Family Strains ------ 466
Twins __-_--- 467
Developmental Periods - - _ _ - 471
Preschool S's - - - - - - 471
Individual Infants _____ 473
Early and Late Childhood _ _ _ _ 476
Early and Late Adolescence _ _ _ _ 482
Senescence ______ 484
Retrospective Growth Records _ - _ _ 486
Social Variables ______ 487
Socio - Economic Status _ - - - - 487
Marginal Social Status _ - _ - - 488
Dependent Children _____ 490
Culture Groups ____-- 495
Nationality Derivation _ _ _ _ 495
Negro S's - - - - - _ 497
Pueblo Indians _ ^ _ - _ 502
xiv
Contents
Social Variables (cont'd.)
Conduct Disorders _ _ _ _ « 505
Behavior and Intelligence - - - _ 505
Behavior and Organic Involvement - - - 507
Child Guidance Problems - - - _ 510
Maladjusted Youths - - - - - 511
Juvenile Delinquents _____ 512
Adult Offenders - - - - - - 517
Physically Handicapped S's _____ 520
Auditory Handicaps _____ 520
Visual Handicaps _____ 527
Orthopedic Handicaps - - - - - - 535
Mentally Handicapped S's - - - _ _ 541
Feeble-Minded _--___ 541
General Evidence _____ 541
Degree of Deficiency _ _ _ _ 543
Double Scoring _____ 544
Training (Idiocy) _____ 547
Physical Therapy (Cerebral Palsy) _ _ _ 550
Social Placement - - - - - 551
Special Class S's - - - - - 557
Social Adequacy _____ 558
Later Maturity _____ 559
Mentally Disturbed _____ 560
Convulsive Seizures _____ 562
Educational Applications _____ 563
Principles and Practice _____ 563
Grade School ChUdren - - - - - 564
High School Students _____ 566
Special Education _____ 567
Literary Employment ______ 571
Fiction, Cultures, Biography _ _ _ _ 572
Adaptations - _ _ _ _ - - 574
Abbreviation and Expansion _ _ _ _ 574
Group Form ______ 578
Summary _______ 579
References _______ 579
Chapter 14. Clinical Integration.
Principles _______ 5g5
Case 1 Superior Twins _____ 588
Case 2 Young Idiot ______ 589
Case 3 Adult Idiot ____-- 5M
Case 4 Adult Imbecile _____ 5W
Case 5 Marginal Deficiency _____ 595
Case 6 Borderline Dull-Normal _ _ _ _ 598
Case 7 Potential Moron _____ 6^2
Case 8 Potential Normality _____ 606
Case 9 Spastic Imbecile _____ 610
Case 16 High Moron ____-- 612
Case 11 Spastic Inadeqiitate _____ €16
Contents
Chapter 14 {cont'd.)
Case 12 Borderline Normal - - - - - 618
Case 13 Doubtful Diagnosis ----- 621
Case 14 Borderline Moron ----- 623
Case 15 Aphasic Moron _ _ _ - _ 625
Case 16 Organic Impairment ----- 627
Case 17 Blind Moron ------ 629
Case 18 Deteriorated Moron ----- 632
Case 19 Psychotic Episode ----- 635
Summary ___---- 637
References - - - - _ - - 637
Epilogue -------- 639
Name Index _--_--- 643
Subject Index __----- 647
'10ik
TABLES and FIGURES Page
Fig. I. Median LA by point scores - - - - 371
Table A. For converting total scores to social - age values 290
B. Fragmentary example, differential comparisons 499
C. MA and SA boundaries, clinical degrees of MD 543
D. Illustrative abbreviated scale - - - 576
E. Profile, VSMS 577
1. Description of normative subjects - - 355
2. Item standardization, normal S's - - 366
3. Total scores by LA, normal S's - - - 369
4. Distribution of total scores, normal S's - - 372
5. Standardization of SA and SQ scores, normal S's 376
5A. Distribution of SA by LA, normal S's - - 378
5B. Distribution of SQ by LA, normal S's - - 379
6. "Scattering" on point scores, normal S's - 385
7. Distribution of SQ by POC, normal S's - - 386
7A. Distribution of SQ by own occupational class - 387
8. Description of FM S's, item - analysis sample 397
8A. Distribution of SA by LA, item - analysis sample 398
8B. Distribution of MA by LA, item - analysis sample 399
8C. Distribution of SA by MA, item - analysis sample 400
9. Mean item total norms, item - analysis sample 402
9A. Items showing significant CR's, N vs FM S's - 406
10. Types of item scores, N vs FM S's - - 409
11. "Scattering" on point scores, FM S's - - 413
12. Distribution of LA and MA, VTS S's - - 417
13. Distribution of LA and SA, VTS S's - - 419
14. Distribution of MA and SA, VTS S's - - 421
15. Distribution of MA and SA, LA's combined - 422
16. Distribution of LA and IQ, VTS S's - - 428
17. Distribution of LA and SQ, VTS S's - - 425
18. Distribution of IQ and SQ, VTS S's - - 426
19. Summary data, etiological - cultural origins - 445
20. Sample data on continuing maturation - - 486
I. (Doll) Analysis of SA increments, FM S's - 464
I. (Ceres) Mean scores, VSMS, gi'oups I - II - 478
xvii
PART I
PHILOSOPHY OF THE METHOD
Chapter 1. Introduction
Chapter 2. Postulates
Chapter 3. The Problem of Measurement
Introduction
Two little seeds awoke one day.
As seeds will do in the month of May,
But lo, and behold, they had clean forgot
If they were carrots or beets or what!
At length they decided that they must needs
Call a council of^ sixteen seeds,
Some said onions or beets; but no.
Others said it couldn't be so;
Some said turnips or celery seeds;
Some said lettuce; and some said weeds;
Then a sunflower spoke; "It may be slow
But the way to find out is just to grow!" — County Y's
Epitome. This volume presents the Vineland Social
Maturity Scale for the measurement of social competence. It
elaborates previous preliminary publications and includes the
background of the method, detailed manual, basic data,
preliminary standardization and validation, illustrative group
and clinical application.
This scale is not just one more "testing" instrument in the
field of human measurement. On the contrary, as a standard-
ized method for the quantitative estimation of personal social
maturation it presents a unique device for the overall evalu-
ation of human behavior. Social competence is a universal
human attribute. The measurement of its maturational degrees
within known limits of error affords a new means for investi-
gating its constituent variables and its significant relations to
many human problems.
Attention has often been directed to the study of the or-
ganism as a whole, with corresponding deprecation of the
dissectional analysis of human growth and behavior. Investi-
gations concerned with single aspects of behavior such as
physical growth, physiological functioning, intellectual en-
dowment, behavioral adjustment, learning, and the like, almost
inevitably fall short of holistic integration. Many thoughtful
students appreciate the importance of treating maturation and
adjustment in bio-psycho-social terms. But how shall we en-
compass the complete individual in his dynamic complexity?
Decomposition is essential for an understanding of a compound,
2 Introduction
and reassemblage of elements is equally necessary to the in-
tegrity of the aggregate. The H2O is not the water; the frac-
tional distillates of human behavior may not reveal the unique
self ; the group is more than the catalogue of its members.
We explore here two fundamental considerations; (a) the
ontogenetic evaluation of the individual as an independent so-
cial unit with emphasis on his subjective self-sustaining social
adequacies, and (h) the individual as a cooperating and contri-
buting member of the social group. The former scrutinizes
certam developmental "operations" of the individual in their
predominantly personal relevance as an important precon-
dition of social self-sufficiency. The latter probes the extension
of such personal activities into spheres of congregate welfare
or their impingement upon other persons.
This relation of one person to another integrates individ-
ual with social psychology. Personal and subjective experiences
acquire social significance when shared with other persons. The
ultimate import of self-psychology derives from its social rele-
vance. We are concerned here, then, with human behavior as
ultim.ately capitalized in some relevant expression of social
competence. This competence, we submit, ir.ay be conceived in
terms of personal independence and social responsibility.
Thus the social adequacy of the individual as a whole, with due
regard for age and culture, is conceived as the social end-
result of the physical, physiological, intellectual, habitual,
emotional, volitional, educational, occupational aspects of per-
sonal growth, adjustment, and attainment which ensue from
his constitutional predispositions and environmental impacts.
This social competence is not something static. It entails
both phylogenetic and ontogenetic evolution and it varies with
physical and cultural conditions according to time, place, and
circumstance. Social competence may therefore be expressed in
terms of age, status, opportunity, talent, health, degree of free-
dom., and so on.
In short, social competence may be defined as a functional
composite of human traits which subserves social usefulness as
reflected in self-sufficiency and in service to others. This con-
cept postulates at all points a relation between constitutional
aptitude and environmental activity and assumes that deviation
or variation from the normal in these respects, whether arising
from physical, mental, or social causes, is ultimately mirrored in
some measurable increase, decrease, or other modification of
social competence.
Epitome 3
Consider for a moment some of the advantages of such
a scale in its larger aspects. Our experimental evidence shows
that it provides a fairly reliable and valid measure of genetic
maturation and senescent decline in social competence. It ex-
presses individual differences in such competence within defi-
nite limits of statistical deviation or co-variation. It reflects
the influence of known variables. It therefore may be used as
an indirect measure of its components; for example, such a
constituent variable as mental age can be estimated from the
measure of social age.
Of critical importance is the fact that this scale does not
require the presence of the subject for examination; on the
contrary, the standard method provides an examination of the
subject in absentia, and therefore, if desirable, without his col-
laboration; e.g., if deceased or otherwise inaccessible to direct
examination. This makes possible the plotting of retrospective
growth curves and thereby reduces the limits of error in the
prediction of further growth (by supplying more points for a
given curve). By the sam.e reasoning the Scale affords an im-
mediate method of longitudinal as well as cross-sectional study.
Moreover, it yields not only a measure of total competence
within the limits of definition, but also a somewhat detailed
description or analysis of that competence. It provides a basic
criterion for the study of environmental influences and com-
parative culture groups. It affords an objective quantitative
method for family history study. Used as a developmental
schedule for anamnesis it reflects precocity, retardation, alter-
ations, or decline in growth. It serves to reveal the social
consequences of such handicaps as deafness, blindness, insanity,
delinquency, and other mental, physical, and social abnormali-
ties. Translated in terms of the customs and attainments of
"primitive" or ethnic groups it affords a useful scientific device
in the field of cultural anthropology.
The present volume samples some of these possibilities.
A few applications of the Scale have been investigated with
some thoroughness ; other explorations have been made as pro-
totypic studies to demonstrate the practicability of the method.
In spite of the serious preliminary work already accomplished,
the present form of the Scale should be viewed as only the first
step in the development of a method that merits extensive
experimental evaluation. In view of the wide range of useful-
ness which such an instrument affords it is evident that par-
ticular areas of the Scale should be elaborated, more extensive
normative standardization undertaken, and wider differential
validation essayed in various fields of application.
4 Introduction
The standardized interview procedure on which this scale
is based is itself a relatively new departure in the field of hu-
man measurement. While the Scale is constructed on the same
principles as the Binet-Simon scale for intelligence, the manner
of its employment is radically different. In spite of precon-
ceived objections to the method of interview as applied to
precise measurement, the evidence herein indicates the
practicability of the definitive interview technique.
Origin of the Scale. In the course of various investigations
on these propositions we ultimately designed the present pro-
cedure. About 1925, The Vineland Laboratory was engaged in
studies of job analysis of training procedures (Buhl, 1928;
Doll, 1924, 1929a; Kuenzel, 1928)* as an expansion of the tech-
niques of industrial occupational analysis previously employed
in the correctional institutions of New Jersey (Doll, 1920, 1921,
1926; Doll and Kuenzel, 1930). Occupational, classroom,
and cottage training situations were reduced from their overall
extent to relatively specific unit operations. This work led to
the designing of experimental score-cards for the measurement
of learning in occupational situations (Kuenzel, 1929), ad-
justment in social group relations (Yepsen, 1928), and im-
provement or recovery (Doll, 1929b) among hospital patients
(see Chapter 3).
These efforts soon proved helpful in another direction. In
1928, systematic muscle training was begun at The Training
School for a group of mentally deficient and mentally normal
patients with motor handicaps produced by intracranial birth
lesions (Doll, 1933a). In undertaking to measure the improve-
ment of these patients under treatment we endeavored first to
observe the nature of the anticipated progress and then to
gauge its amounts (Melcher, 1930). Amelioration was ex-
pected in body mechanics through increased facility of move-
ment at the various joints, enhancement of muscle tone, and
smoother timing of antagonists. This was essentially a neuro-
muscular problem which was primarily the mutual responsi-
bility of the physical therapist and the examining orthopedist.
Various attempts to measure such benefits proved clinically
unsatisfactory. We finally concentrated on a different problem,
namely, the gains in total performance of the individual from
the point of view of social usefulness, or the practical capital-
ization of rectified body mechanics as expressed through in-
creased personal adequacy (Longwell, 1935).
* References in parentheses apply to authors and related years of publica-
tion in the list of references at the ends of the same chapters in which
they occur.
Origin of the Scale 5
The problem was complicated by the wide variation in the
characteristics of the patients (Doll, 1933b). They represented
both sexes, life ages from two to fifty years, mental ages from
two to thirteen years, and mental conditions from low-grade
imbecility to mental superiority. The motor handicaps ranged
from almost complete helplessness to relatively minor inco-
ordination.
Obviously, such a study required anticipation of improve-
ment through growth and development as well as from treat-
ment, and the possibility that these might be interdependent.
This led, naturally, to a consideration of maturation versus
amelioration. The problem seemed simple enough until we
attempted to use our knowledge of genetic psychology in so
practical a manner.
A staff seminar was organized to canvass the field. The
literature of child study was found rich in general orientation
but barren of details that could be employed for the systematic
appraisal of individual social development. In this respect the
situation was much the same as that which confronted Binet
and Simon when they first proposed their scale for measuring
intelligence (Binet and Simon, 1016). To employ an engineer-
ing simile, preliminary survey lines had been run but there
were no accurate devices for chaining, and no satisfactory
instruments for determining levels.
In the field of psychometry a wealth of material was avail-
able. But our problem was not one of adapting mental tests as
indirect measures of social aptitude. Our task was to measure
attainment in social competence considered as habitual per-
formance rather than as latent ability or capacity. Mental
traits could not be ignored as components, but their direct
measurement was to be avoided except as contributing factors
and for controlling interpretation.
The wide range of our subjects in developmental status and
motor handicaps required that we encompass the entire period
of normal maturation and that we consider all factors contri-
buting to social maturation, such as intelligence, motor facility,
training, experience, motivation, conduct, environmental cir-
cumstances. Our goal was to appraise the social effects of these
participating variables while avoiding their isolated measure-
ment, to evaluate their integrated capitalization rather than
their ispecific roles.
At this point we adopted the method of Binet and Simon
by postulating a developmental central factor (corresponding
to their "judgment," or Spearman's g) operating in combination
6 Introduction
with various specific or group factors. This central factor we
loosely conceived as progressive self-direction culminating in
the direction and protection of others.
Unlike Binet and Simon, we sought to measure accustomed
performance in mastered attainment rather than innate capac-
ity for solving novel problems. Like them, however, we were
obliged to follow the principle of sampling representative per-
formances from which general performance might be inferred.
The conclusions from these considerations were not imme-
diately self-evident. On the contrary, our initial attack served
only to emphasize the difficulties without more than faintly
suggesting their resolution. We were obliged for a time to con-
tent ourselves with the less ambitious task of appraising the
immediate consequences of muscle training in specific direc-
tions.
Progress schedule. Capitalizing our earlier experiences we
then formulated a tentative systematic performance schedule
arranged as a descriptive progress chart. The categories of
this schedule included items on the motor aspects of locomotion,
dressing, bathing, eating, speech, writing, and eliminative con-
trol. For each of these categories a number of detailed per-
formances were arranged in presumptive order of progressive
difficulty. With the exception of the items on speech and writ-
ing, most of the categories were fairly complete from the easi-
est to the most difficult tasks for the developmental period
corresponding to infancy and early childhood. This made it
possible to score each patient in terms of the entire schedule
and thus determine his overall progressive status regardless of
the variables of sex, age, mental age, diagnostic classification,
and motor handicap.
This uniform chart enabled us to rescore each patient at
successive time-intervals and note such changes as might have
taken place. For this purpose the child was observed, the physi-
cal therapist interviewed, and the patients' cottage attendants
carefully questioned as to the extent to which each item was
usefully performed, and as to the habitual or emergent nature
of such performances. On some items the child was actually
"tested," but the progressive or habitual extent to which the
performance was revealed in daily behavior was deemed more
significant.
This study was carried out over a period of three years with
birth-palsied subjects receiving muscle training (Longwell,
.19S5). As the work progressed it became evident that we
were employing a device with significant possibilities for
Further Evolution 7
estimating the social improvement or genetic social maturation
of the feeble-minded in general. Accordingly we set ourselves
the task of extending this schedule so as to encompass a wider
variety and range of activities. This task was undertaken
early in 1934 and the first draft of the final scale was completed
in July of that year.
Further evolution. Tentative examinations were made
of a number of trial subjects with this rough draft. These
were normal and feeble-minded, juvenile and adult, low-grade
and high-grade, male and female. The Scale was still only a
series of items arranged in presumptive order of difficulty.
These first results led to rearrangements, rejections and addi-
tions and also provided preliminary year-scale groupings. The
modified draft was submitted to the executive staff (depart-
ment heads) and to the full research staff of The Training
School for critical evaluation. Helpful suggestions and general
approval encouraged further work.
By this time the need for precise definition of items was
apparent as well as for a systematic method of administration
and scoring. After numerous formulations, which incidentally
led to further modification of items, a fairly stable preliminary
manual of procedure was worked out.
From the data obtained on a relatively small number of
subjects, experimental Form A was evolved. This was presented
for discussion at the annual meeting (1935) of the American
Orthopsychiatric Association and published in its Journal
(Doll, 1935a). Favorable reception led to releasing the Scale
to a few colleagues for collaborative experimentation.
To facilitate such collaboration a preliminary brief manual
was published (Doll, 1935c). Further data on normative
standardization and feeble-minded validation were soon pre-
sented at the annual meeting (1935) of the American Asso-
ciation on Mental Deficiency and published in the Proceedings
of that Association (Doll, 1935b).
As experience with the method gave assurance of its mer-
its, a systematic program of standardization and validation was
carried out (Doll, 1936a). The many studies ensuing from
that program both at Vineland and elsewhere over the subse-
quent years delayed the preparation of the elaborated manual
and formal report of substantiating data now presented here-
with.
These investigations, fortified by extensive correspondence
with collaborating workers, generally confirmed the practicabil-
8 Introduction
ity of the method and yielded further refinements. Form B
and a revised condensed manual were published (Doll, 1936b).
and the method was released for general experimental use.
We further tested the efficacy of the method and sought addi-
tional clarification of various diflficulties. This was accomplished
(1) by applying Form B with various tjrpes of handicapped
subjects such as deaf, blind, delinquent, and insane; (2) by
investigating such influences as inheritance and culture in
family strains, with twins and siblings, with Negroes and
Pueblo Indians; (3) by demonstrating its clinical usefulness
in social, educational and psychological casework; (4) by ex-
ploring its administrative ramifications and its feasibility for
appraising fictional characters and biographies. In particular
we began longitudinal growth studies of both normal and
feeble-minded subjects. The results of these and other ex-
perimental evaluation of the method and its versatile potential-
ities are summarized in subsequent chapters, especially Parts
IV and V.
REFERENCES
BiKET, Alfred, and Th. Simon. 1916. The development of intalligenee m
children. (Trans, by Elizabeth S. Kite). Baltimore: Williams and
Wilkins.
Buhl, George H. 1928. The education of low-grade feeble-minded througb
job analysis. Training School Bulletin, 26, 1-10.
Doll, Edgar A. 1920. The correlation of mental types with occupational
assignment. Proceedings of the American Prison Atsociation, 1920, pp^
306-313.
Doll, Edgar A. 1921. Report of the Psychologist. In New Jersey Stats
Prison Biennial Report for Fiscal Years 1920 and 1921, pp. 92-122.
Trenton: N. J. State Prison.
Doll, Edgar A. 1924. Capabilities of low-grade feeble-minded. Training
School Bulletin, 21, 65-77.
Doll, Edgar A. 1926. Psychology in the organization of prison industries,.
Bulletin of the Taylor Society, 11, 219-223.
Doll, Edgar A. 1929a. Job analysis as a basis for teaching. Bulletin of th*
Taylor Society, 14, 134-141.
Doll, Edgar A. 1929b. A score-card for measuring the improvement of mental
patients. Unpublished research form. The Vineland Laboratory.
Doll, Edgar A. 1933a. Birth lesion as a category of mental deficieacy.
American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 3, 1-13.
References 9
Don, Edgah a. 1933b. Psychological significance of cerebral birth lesions.
American Journal of Psychology, 46, 444-462.
Doix, Edgar A. 1935a. A genetic scale of social maturity. American Joumai
of Orthopsychiatry, 6, 180-188.
Doll, Edgab A. 1935b. The measurement of social competence. Proceedings
of the American Association on Mental Deficiency, 40, 103-123.
Doll, Edgab A. 1935c. The Vineland Social Maturity Scale. Training Bchool
Bulletin, 32, 1-7, 25-32, 48-55, 68-74.
Doll, Edgab A. 1936a. Preliminary standardization of the Vineland Social
Maturity Scale. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 6, 283-293.
Doll, Edgae A. 1936b. The Vinelnnd Social Maturity Scal£i revised con-
densed manual of directions. Vineland: The Training School.
Doll, Edgab A., and Myka W. Kuenzel. 1930. Job analysis for placement
and training. Unpublished monograph. The Vineland Laboratory.
KtTENZEL, Mtha W. 1928. Job analysis for training assignment in dining room,
housework, pantry and poultry occupations. Unpublished research report,
The Vineland Laboratory.
KuENZEL, Mtha W. 1929. A score-card of industrial virtues. Unpublished
research form, The Vineland Laboratory.
LoNGWELL, S. Geraldine. 1936. Influence of muscle training on birth-injured
mentally deficient children. Journal of Genetic Psychology, 46, 349-370.
Melcher, Ruth T. 1930. Research in progress on birth injury. Training
School Bulletin, 27, 41-49.
Yepsen, Llotd N. 1928, Objective estimation of social behavior. TrainUig
School BuUetin, 26, 33-41.
Postulates
Maturity is not dated on any
calendar, nor is it achieved at a given day
like a twenty-first birthday and the right to
vote. The maturity of adulthood is the outcome
of lifelong growth. A child begins to grow up
the minute he is born. He may be "grown up"
at any level, provided he is making use of the
potentialities and adjusting to the needs inherent
in that stage of his development. In this sense
"growing up" is a process which is continuously
going on — in infancy, in childhood, in adolescence
and on throughout life. — Child Study
Major premises. This book explores the following assump-
tions :
1. Social competence maj'- be defined as the functional
ability of the human organism for exercising personal inde-
pendence and social responsibility.
2. This competence may be measured progressively in
terms of maturation by sampling its genetic stages by means
of representative performances at successive life ages.
3. Such maturation may be taken as a practicable measure
of the changing organism as a whole, as an epitome of the
useful capitalization of all minutiae of detailed structures,
functions and experiences of the integrated personality.
4. Individual status in social competence may be expressed
in terms of numerical and descriptive deviation from established
maturational norms and evaluated in terms of related variables.
5. The Scale proposed herein affords a unique procedure
for the measurement of individual social competence in its
group and clinical ramifications.
6. Such measurement provides a valid means for the
scientific pursuit of many relevant social studies.
The treatment of these propositions will involve some
repetition. Re-statement of standpoint will clarify diverse
emphases. The argument may first be expounded in terms
of some of the postulates which underlie the construction of
the Scale.
Biological Orientation 11
Biological orientation. Capacity for survival is a universal
attribute of all things. That this capacity may be greater or
less, and variously displayed, from matter to man. Smith to
Jones, or cave to penthouse adds to its fascination by the very
diversity of its expression (Allee, 1938; Bradley, 1938; Jen-
nings, 1930). From gas to cell, cell to organism, organism to
society, without survival there would be void.
Added to the capacity for survival are the attributes of
variation and modifiability. Matter emerges in structure,
structure induces function, function leads to integration, and
individual behavior merges into group action, in the great cycle
of creative synthesis we call emergent evolution (Newman,
1926). Such evolution is ontogenetic and phylogenetic, personal
and social, idiosyncratic and cultural, normal or deviate, and to
an appreciable extent reciprocally interacting (Briffault, 1927;
Cowdry, 1930; Dorse.v, 1925; Pressey, 1939; Yerkes, 1929).
In this complex of Nature each element, compound, or
substance has properties which uniquely reflect its holistic role
in some global setting. And each of these modifies the organ-
ismic effectiveness, total adequacy, or useful value of part
structures as exercised in relation to other parts and the inte-
grated whole. If we may consider this exercise as function,
then the adequacy of matter may be described in terms of its
effects on other matter in specific or general relationships.
The human organism is a complex example of these gen-
eralizations (Cannon, 1932; Carrel, 1935; Crile, 1916). Its
capacity for survival derives from multiple aptitudes which in
their togetherness are expressed as self-sufficiency or personal
independence, of greater or less degree and of varied expres-
sion. It also has relations to other organisms, principally human
for our purposes, which we may term social exchange. It
has personal functions which reflect its total structure and the
sum of its experiences. And it exercises these functions in rela-
tion to other individuals of its social scene.
We may further observe that the capacity for structural
survival and functional adequacy in the organic world is rough-
ly correlated with age and species. As the organism grows
structurally it matures functionally in a cycle of development
and deterioration, of evolution and involution. The tempo and
pattern of this maturation determine the progressive adequacy
of the organism for both personal and group action.
The human infant is dependent on his elders for survival,
but with advancing years gradually attains relatively com-
plete self-sufficiency (Goodenough, 1945). This increase in
12 Postulates
personal independence is accomplished by correlative matura-
tion in responsibility toward others. For example, among the
mentally subnormal the adult idiot fails to mature beyond the
level of adequacy of the normal infant in personal independence,
while the grown moron never achieves effective adult re-
sponsibility for others. At the stage of senescent involution
the previously normal adult may regress to a "second childhood"
(Cowdry, 1942).
Growth potentials. All organisms begin life with a genetic
potential for growth. In its simplest forms this growth is
mere expansion in size or volume without appreciable elabora-
tion of parts. In multicellular organisms such growth is
accompanied by development, with differentiation of parts in
complexity and function. This physical diversification is
paralleled in greater or less degree by modification of behavior
which increases in variety and scope as the organism matures
(Carmichael, 1946; Coghill, 1929; Graubard, 1936).
Rates of gro\\i:h and development show individual differ-
ences within a given species, although the patterns of differen-
tiation are relatively constant (Gesell. 1934, 1938, 1939, 1940;
McGraw, 1935; Shirley, 1931, 1935). The evolution of behavior
varies from phylum to phylum, but is more or less constant in
a given genus or family. As the organism reaches later stages
of maturity, and correspondingly advanced degrees of com-
plexity, the order and type of behavioral development tend to
depart from that which is constant for the species as deter-
mined by genetic potential, and become more or less individual-
ized in relation to environmental circumstances and adaptation
to milieu (Ellis, 1928; Gilliland, 1933).
Let us apply these general principles to the development of
behavior in the human species. The child is born apparently
helpless. Yet not entirely so, for certain vital functions are
present not only at birth but before birth, and the same is true
of some relatively unorganized movements. At birth certain
forms of reflex behavior are obvious, such as nursing, grasp-
ing, and the more or less total, vague, or random motor
responses to sensory stimuli. Inventories of prenatal and
neonatal behavior are becoming increasingly definite in the
enumeration of specific and general movement complexes
((Carmichael, 1946).
If from this extremity, we leap to an examination of the
behavior of superior adults in their prime, we observe such
variety, complexity, and individuality in behavior that one
finds it practically impossible to catalogue their forms and
Growth Potentials 13
extent (Grabbe, 1939 ; Korzybski, 1933 ; Thorndike, 1940 ; Wer-
ner, 1948; Young, 1943). The mechanics of such behavior
and the underlying principles are becoming increasingly un-
derstood, but need not concern us here. For our purposes, such
behavior may be viewed in functional terms as the maturation-
al adaptation of the individual in and to his environment. The
adaptive behavioral forms are specifically modified by time^
place and circumstance, but their nature and extent are bio-
logically and morphologically predetermined by genetic
potential.
The relative influence of nature and nurture has long been
debated. This question is enjoying a current revival of interest,
especially among psychologists. The surge of conviction is
seldom one of heredity or environment but the relative influence
of each in the total development and attainment of the organ-
ism (Howells, 1945; Werner, 1948).
That environmental conditions can materially alter the
expression of hereditary potential is now clear enough (Plant,
1937; Stockard, 1931). But such alteration tends to require
conditions which are so specifically abnormal to the species
under consideration as to produce pathological modification.
Or the conditions are so unusual as to lose significant relevance
by their very rarity, and the amounts of alteration due to mini-
mum or optimum conditions surrounding ordinary maturation
are relatively small as compared with the hereditary potential.
Even the environmental modification of hereditary potential
through selective mating operates within relatively narrow
limits as compared with the destiny of species.
Attention to these (relative) minutiae of environmental
modifications for most organisms and under typical conditions
tends to obscure the basic biological perspective (Needham,
1941). Thus dogs do not beget kittens even if their progeny are
"reared" in a state of chronic alcoholism. Nor are chicks wont
to swim, however skilled their instruction. On the other hand
the primitive may learn to hunt but not to read, and the slum
dweller vice versa. So also the smithy develops strong muscle
while the tea taster acquires keen sensitivity.
An interesting example is apparent in the training of
Seeing Eye dogs. Only certain breeds (or exceptional individ-
uals) have been found to profit from such training. Following
two months of obedience training the animal is then instructed
in judicious (disobedience (where obedience would be hazardous
to the master) or the exercise of purposive initiative and
judgment. Some animals prove unsuited to this second stage
14 Postulates
of training. No selective "tests" have yet been devised for
the selection of animals who will prove successful at this more
advanced stage of competence.
Whatever the merits of such argument, we herein assume
that biological endowment predetermines minimum and max-
imum levels of maturation while cultural influences affect
expression within these limits — when it is a question of assign-
ing relative weights to either. Both may be modified within
limits by environmental agencies. Yet man remains human,
and beast remains brute. And man throughout history, no
matter what his environment, eats, dresses, moves about, talks,
works, plays, and acts purposively. His own influence on that
environment as well as its influence on such activities become
susceptible to investigation when typical behavior in a defined
milieu is subjected to standardized measurement.
Environmental modifiability. In the simpler organisms
behavior is relatively unmodifiable, even though it may be ex-
traordinarily complex (e.g., among the insects). Such behavior
is commonly said to be instinctive, or the product of inherited
neuron patterns ; however varied it is not appreciably variable.
That is, the limits of modifiability of behavior are narrowly
circumscribed. Nevertheless, even here there is definite evi-
dence of some modifiability through adaptation to the environ-
ment.
In the human species modifiability of behavior is at a
biological maximum though still constitutionally limited. Its
nuances are accomplished through spontaneous adaptation,
imitation, formal education, self-instruction as different modes
of learning. Indeed, as Thorndike put it, the human individual
modifies what he learns as well as being modified by it, not
merely by passive receptivity to surrounding influences, but
by active reaction to them. In this way man dominates his en-
vironment and his social relations, controls the environment
within limits, or interacts with the environment rather than
simply reacting to it. Instead of merely "cooperating with the
inevitable" he seeks to master or at least to alter his destiny.
Behavioral modalities. Behavioral adaptation is a coor-
dinated process, but the pattern of the component details may
amplify now this, now that, facet (Boring, 1933). These
specialized aspects of behavior may be logically isolated for
study, but are rarely seen alone, and then only in the earliest
stages of their development. Pure sensation almost immediately
becomes perception, and perception at once involves correlated
experience. Isolated stimuli quickly become invested with re-
Behavioral Components 15
lated stimuli by immediate association, and simple responses
soon become more or less complex through diffusion of reaction.
The mechanically exact tropisms of our prototypes are among
us at least more subtly disguised.
Hence, although we may talk about simple sensation,
movement, memory, feeling, and ideation, and refer to their
more complex forms as perception, skill, habit, sentiment, and
thought, we do this always with the reservation that these
phases of behavior are almost never seen in isolation, but al-
ways in more or less integrative association (Angyal, 1941).
When we discuss these particular aspects of behavior as if they
were independent, we are really describing that detail of a
totality which is for the moment of the greatest interest,
seldom separable from the entirety, but for the time being its
most significant feature.
Behavioral components. Not forgetting this essential im-
practicability of segregating special types of behavior as
independent of each other or of the organism as a whole, we
do nevertheless for convenience of description and analysis
separate some forms of behavior for special study on the basis
of their most characteristic components (Warren, 1934).
Thus, if we are interested in thfe motor coordination aspect of
a particular total-response situation, we may label this as skill,
even though without attention, motivation, memory, and the
like we should have no directed activity. Or, if we are concern-
ed with the reproductive aspect of behavior, we may speak of
it as memory. And if this memory is cumulative, organized,
and assimilated, we may speak of it as learning. When its
most important feature is rational comprehension, we may la-
bel behavior as purposively adaptive and refer to its capacity
for such expression as intelligence. When repetitively organ-
ized for relatively automatic or standardized response, be-
havior becomes habit.
Likewise, we may be concerned with more than one such
feature of behavior isolated from the totality, while still not
forgetting that all phases of behavior are always present in
greater or less degree. Thus, we may use the word sentiment
as meaning ideas compounded with feelings, or consider
personality as representing the characteristic (manifold)
individual response attitude. Learning may refer to isolated
achievements or to such complex acquisitions as trade skills,
social habits, general knowledge, formal conduct, and the like.
Focus of behavior. Our major interest in developing a
social maturity scale is directed toward the measurement of
16 Postulates
that complex of behavior which engenders personal and inter-
personal social competence. It has been said that no human be-
havior is significant except in terms of its social import. Just
as there is no sound, but only vibration, without a listening ear
to sense it, so there is no worth to behavior except as there is
some situation in respect to which that behavior is pertinent.
Literally, of course, behavior may be significant for the person
himself in social isolation, but such situations are exceptional
or temporary (Gesell, 1940; Singh, 1942). Social behavior
may therefore be viewed as the ultimate focus of integrated
behavior.
Maturation principle. From these premises we infer that
it is possible to observe certain behavioral complexes as specially
significant in those aspects of gi'ov/th and development which
effect an increasing identification of the individual with his
social environment (Carmichael, 1946; Morgan, 1942). Such
behavior may first be viewed as the extent to which the individ-
ual fends for himself or increasingly attends to his own needs,
privileges, duties, and responsibilities according to his age and
social surroundings. We note at once that this social independ-
ence, considered as one aspect of individual social competence,
is progressive and follows a fairly definite course from birth
to senescence. In other words, social behavior expands or con-
tracts as an accompaniment of mental and physical ontogenesis
or decline.
Such behavior normally becomes increasingly complex in
type and varied in expression with advancing age. It reveals a
conative ingredient which induces the individual to seek pro-
gressive domination of his environment by taking over the
authority and responsibility for his own acts. This is first ex-
pressed as an increasing demand for freedom from the domina-
tion of protectors, elders or superiors, and conversely as an
assumption of authority over dependents, juniors and inferiors.
In short, the individual moves from helplessness to inde-
pendence, then to helpfulness, and again to dependence. In
early infancy he must rely upon others for subsistence and for
those personal needs which he is unable to provide for or attend
to himself. Gradually a self-help tyipe of behavior becomes
organized with increasing exercise of personal initiative and
resourcefulness. When this enables him to satisfy his imme-
diate wants he becomes self-directive in his social relations,
stretching the apron strings to their elastic limit. Following
emancipation from the disabilities and restraints of childhood
and youth he emerges into adulthood, responsible now for him-
Categorical Aspects 17
self and assuming his share of group and family responsibility
for the continuity of the race, its society and its welfare. He
is now a contributing member of that society and repays to it
and to his family the services rendered him previously by them.
His bio-social compulsive aspirations lead him beyond the
necessities of mere survival to add his mite to the social and
familial heritage of his world. Finally, with the infirmities of
age reducing him to senescent dependence he completes the
endless cycle by an involutional return to his original helpless-
ness (de la Mare, 1935).
". . . Though we dye but once, yet do not we
dye at once: We may make, yea we do make many assaies or
tryals of dying: Death insinuates it selfe, and seizeth
upon us by peecemeals; it gives us a tast of it self:
It is the Cronie, or Consort of life: So soon as we begin
to be, wee begin to wast and vanish; we cannot ascend to
life, without descending towards death: Nay we begin to
dye before we appeare to live; the perfect shape of the
Infant is the death of the Embryo, childhood is the death
of Infancie, youth of Childhood, Manhood of youth, and
old age of Manhood. When we are arrived at this last
stage, if we stay any long time in it, and pay not the
debt we owe, death requires interest; she takes his
hearing from one, his sight from another, and from
some she takes both: The extent and end of all things
touch their beginning, neither doth the last minute
of life do any thing else, but finish what the first
began . . . Life is a Terrace-walke with an Arbour at
one end, where we repose, and dream over our past per-
ambulations. . ."
Categorical aspects. For our purposes we may label this
evolution as social maturation. Such maturation has at least
three major dimensions, (1) from dependence to independence,
(2) from irresponsibility to responsibility, and (3) from in-
competence to competence. Actually the degree of social com-
petence is here viewed as the synthesized expression of the
progressive independence and responsibility which signify
social maturation. By social competence we here mean more
than the creative or productive phases of behavior. To such
occupational pursuits we must add social cooperation, social
intercourse, social mobility, social self-management, and social
self-assistance. These in their altogetherness determine the
degree of selfish and philanthropic attainment. It is only for
purposes of clarity and convenience that they may be considered
separately.
18 Postulates
We note at once that the child at birth is relatively helpless.
Although he can nurse, he must be placed to the breast; al-
though he can grasp and hold, objects must be placed within his
reach or in his hands ; although he vocalizes, his "vocabulary"
is unarticulated. His early expressive development is essen-
tially sensori-motor. His initial behavior is uninhibited and
poorly coordinated. His personal competence is grossly limited.
When he learns to roll over instead of having to be turned
over, this may be viewed as an early step toward personal in-
dependence or self-help. If he grasps objects within reach,
these do not have to be handed to him. Such performances in-
crease in number, variety, and complexity, pursuing normally
a fairly constant order but at a somewhat variable rate.
These modes of behavior soon become categorically dif-
ferentiated as well as specifically elaborated (Carmichael,
1946). Thus, even in the first six months of postnatal life
there is some achievement in communication, self-help, social-
ization, occupation, self -direction, and locomotion. As we ob-
serve the course of development, all these major categories of
behavior are seen to be generally present, but of unequal im-
portance and degree. The detailed performances within and
among these categories are seen to be both co-extensive and
overlapping with the result that given categories may predomi-
nate over others at different periods of development, or among
different children of equivalent development.
The principal developments of early childhood are in the
direction of self-help, with the other details of development
principally subordinate or anticipatory. Similarly, self-direc-
tion items tend to predominate in adolescence, and socialization
items in adulthood. Occupational items are present throughout
the life span, but rise in importance in the adolescent and adult
periods. Locomotion items appear significantly throughout
the life period, and this is also true for communication items.
As noted later (Chapter 4), our method of approach to
this problem was two-fold, first through an inventory of specific
behavior that seemed to be fairly characteristic of given age
periods, and second by an analysis of behavior categories which
seemed susceptible to progressive definition. The outcome in
both directions may therefore be described as the result of em-
pirical observation and analysis rather than of logical or
theoretical considerations.
For example, with respect to locomotion, we observe in
Environmental Circumstances 19
children at successive life ages a continuing extension of free-
dom in personal and environmental mobility. From this we
infer that "getting about" reflects a major category of behavior
which can be formulated as a progression of detailed stages of
increasing independence and personal responsibility. These
achievements influence social competence and may be taken as
one measure of it. Thus, we observe the new-born infant con-
fined to his crib, getting about only as he is moved by someone
else. Soon, by rolling over instead of being moved, he is able to
"roam" within his crib from side to side or end to end. Later,
as his motor coordination and his personal social responsibility
enlarge and ramify, he moves from the crib to the room, and
so increases his social horizon through independent (social)
locomotion. With increasing responsibility he is permitted (or
he insists upon) moving about the house, then to and about the
yard, then about the immediate neighborhood, then within the
remote neighborhood, and ultimately to unrestricted distant
points. Such locomotion may be construed as social rather
than as simply neuromuscular, for the individual enlarges
thereby not only his independence, but also his opportunities
for increased self-expression. And this accession of movements
is attended by hazards which he learns to obviate pari passu.
Environmental circumstances. Obviously, such locomotion
is limited by terrain, custom, dangers, means of transportation,
expense, freedom, and restrictions, as well as by degree of
personal social maturity and the restraints due to age, sex,
degree of responsibility and the like. Consequently, the eval-
uation of social locomotion must be construed according to such
exigencies. And this principle applies to all items of this scale.
We therefore note at once that the formulation of this
scale is related to the central North American (United States)
environment, and that flexibility must be allowed in scoring
the item requirements with due regard for particular altera-
tions from the generalized situation. For this reason, and as
will appear later, it is impracticable to formulate the definition
of items with unequivocal precision. However, the Scale as a
system could be adapted to any environment which differs
materially from that for which the standard scale is formulated
and upon which it is normatively standardized and differential-
ly validated. The reformulation or substitution of items neces-
sary for such adaptation thus becomes a means for the study
of local or comparative culture patterns or acculturation.
It would obviously be absurd to endeavor to apply the
standard items of this scale, designed for the typical cultural
20 Postulates
environment of our day and country, without appropriate modi-
fication for other environments or times. This is important
when there is occasion to use the Scale retrospectively for en-
vironments which have materially changed during the individ-
ual's life history (e. g., by migration from one environment to
another), or in family history studies where the environment
has changed materially with passage of time. Illustrations of
such necessity for modification are set forth in later chapters on
the use of the method under variable conditions, such as various
types of personal handicaps and environmental restrictions.
It is also to be noted that social maturity and social com-
petence are not identical concepts. Some of the items of this
scale measure the former without consistent relatedness to the
latter. We shall subsequently (Chapters 5, 6 and 13) discuss
this issue in some detail.
REFERENCES
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Commonwealth Fund.
Boring, Edwin G. 1933. The physical dimensions of consciousness. New
York: Century.
Bradi.kv Joiix H. 1938. Patterns of survival: an anatomy of life. New
York: Macmillan.
Briffault, Robert. 1927. The mothers: a study of the origins of sentiments
and institutions. Three volumes. New York: Macmillan.
Cannon, Walter B. 1932. The reisdom of the body. New York: W. W. Norton.
Carmiciiael, Leonard. (Ed.) 194.6. Manual of child psychology. New York:
John Wiley and Sons.
Carrel, Alexis. 1935. Man, the unknown. New York: Harper,
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Cowdrt, Edmund Y. (Ed.) 1930. Human biology and racial welfare. New
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Cowdry, E. V. (Ed.) 1942. Problems of ageing: biological and m.edical
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Dorset, George A. 1925. Why we behave like human beings. New York:
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Ellis, Robert S. 1928. The psychology of individual differences. New York:
D. Appleton.
References 21
Gesell, Arnold. 1934. An atlas of infant behavior: a systematic delineation of
the forms and early growth of human behavior patterns. Two volumes.
New Haven: Yale University Press.
Gesell, Arnold. 1940. Wolf child and human child: being a narrative inter-
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Gesell, Arnold, et al. 1939. Biographies of child development: the mental
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Gesell, Arnold, et al. 1940. The first five years of life: a guide to the study
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Gesell, Arnold, and Helen Thompson. 1938. The psychology of early growth:
including norms of infant behavior and a method of genetic analysis.
New York: Macmillan.
Gilliland, a. R. 1933. Genetic psychology. New York: Ronald Press.
Goodenoltgh, Florence L. 1945. Developmental psychology: an introduction
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Century.
Grabbe, Paxil. 1939. We call it human nature. New York: Harper.
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Jennings, H. S. 1930. The biological basis of human nature. New York: W.
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KoRZYBSKi, Alfkeu. 1933. Science and sanity: an introduction to non-
aristotelian systems and general semantics. Lancaster: Science Press.
McGraw, Myrtle B. 1935. Growth: a study of Johnny and Jimmy. New
York: D. Appleton-Century.
Morgan, John J. B. 1942. Child psychology. (Third edition.) New York:
Farrar and Rinehart.
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Macmillan.
22 Postulates
Wabben, Howard C. 1934. Dictionary of psychology. Boston: Houghton
MifHin.
Werner, Heinz. 1948. Comparative psychology of mental development. (Re-
vised edition.) Chicago: Follett.
Yerkes, Robert M., and Ada W. Yerkes. 1929. The great apes: a study of
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YotTNG, Pattl T. 1943- Emotion in man and animal: its nature and relation ti
attitude and nnoiive. New Y^ork: John Wiley and Sons.
The Problem of Measurement
. . . Behold the child, by nature's kindly law.
Pleased with a rattle, tickled with a straw:
Some livelier plaything gives his youth delight,
A little louder, but as empty quite:
Scarfs, garters, gold, amuse his riper stage,
And beads and prayer-books are the toys of age:
Pleaded with this bauble still as that before.
Till tired he sleeps, and life's poor play is o'er. . . — Alexander Pope
Common observations.
"My Anne does everything for herself now ; she says every-
thing ; she goes everywhere."
"Johnny, you're old enough to do that. I'm tired of always
looking after you."
''Please, Susan; you should know better! At your age I
was. . ."
"Henry is such a problem. I can't control him any more«
He insists on having his own way all the time."
"Sam is so shiftless. He has no responsibility, doesn't
hold up his own end, doesn't even provide decently for his old
mother."
"What a success Mr. Brown has made of his life! He is
one of the leaders in our community, runs a big business, and
is in everything. When you want something done, go to a busy
person like him for help."
"Poor old father. He's getting so helpless; needs con-
stant looking after. I have to do everything for him now-
adays."
How commonplace these expressions are! What do they
mean? They reveal a general appreciation of the process of
growing up and the increasing responsibilities and duties
which accompany such growth.
We all judge each other. It has been said that every man
is his own psychologist. We evaluate our own behavior as well
as that of others more or less closely in our everyday relations.
24 The Problem of Measurement
We do not need a scientific "test" to know that one person is
stupid and another intelligent. We make such observations
spontaneously. We lack only a formal analysis of how we
reach such decisions and what the precise degree of ability is.
We deprecate having our own intelligence tested, yet
each of our associates has already formed what is for him a
satisfactory estimate of that intelligence. The correction of
that estimate by formal measurement merely reduces the
margin of error.
Likewise, without benefit of formal procedures we "know"
that Jim Smith is a capable carpenter. Dr. Brown a competent
physician, or Mrs. Jones a good mother. We call one friend
phlegmatic and another optimistic; we say one is moody,
another easily angered ; so-and-so is rated an excellent student,
while another can't seem to learn anything. All these individ-
ual differences in behavior are clearly apparent in the
simplest social contacts. In such mutual appraisal of each
other's aptitudes we note range of vocabulary and ideas,
degree of education, readiness of comprehension, quickness
of perception, spontaneity of reaction.
In the same way we "intuitively sense" the social worth
or stature of our acquaintances and of comparative strangers.
The more discerning among us even pass judgment on the
stages and rates of development of growing children, or of
adults who are "slipping." This is particularly true within
the family where the ordinary parent continuously appraises
the development of his children. He knows which of them are
bright and which dull, which alert or unresponsive, and which
capable or handicapped. Each of us has generalized ideas
regarding development in relation to age, and some idea as to
why these standards are exceeded or not yet reached among
those so observed.
That this knowledge is only impressionistic does not pre-
vent our making daily use of it. When the fond parent states
that "Anne says everything", although Anne is only two years
old, she means that her daughter says everything that anyone
would reasonably expect a two-year-old girl to say under the
circumstances. When the neighbor says that the child is old
enough to know better, or to do this and that for himself, he
is employing definite concepts of child development, even
though he could not precisely formulate those concepts or
define the standards he employs.
The same principles hold for judgments at successive
life stages — in adolescence, in early manhood, in adult prime
General Stages of Social Maturation 25
and in senescence. Such solicitous, admiring, or disparaging
appraisals of others reflect wide-spread knowledge of develop-
ment which is more assured in the field of social behavior than
in other directions because of the more universal significance
of social performances and the more frequent occasions for
observing them.
On such ready evidence rest nearly all of our offhand esti-
mates of development or capability. Social competence is a
complex expression of many component aptitudes, being as a
rule highly correlated with them. A socially competent person
tends to be correspondingly dependable, energetic, emotionally
mature; and the degree of each is inferred from the whole.
Indeed, lack of such correlation calls for explanatory comment.
One person is deprecated as intelligent but untrustworthy,
another as skillful but improvident, another as well educated
but "lacks punch." Whatever the degree of correlation, we
take it for granted that a person's social competence is the
coordinated sum-total of his specific abilities, and that this
is an index of his stage of development.
Yet we also acknowledge that such "common sense"
estimates are to a degree untrustworthy. So we turn to
scientific measurement for confirmation. For science as
"uncommon observation of the commonplace" commands a
well-earned respect. Its measures are less haphazard (more
systematized), less crude (more exact), less dubious (more
reliable) .
General stages of social maturation. The awareness of
the social "ages of man" is as old as literature and as new as
science. Whether we consult the ancient or modern classics
in any tongue, the epitomes are much the same as that by
Shakespeare :
All the world's a stage.
And all the men and women merely players;
They have their exits and their entrances.
And one man in his time plays many parts.
His acts being seven ages. At first the infant.
Mewling and puking in the nurse's arms.
Then the whining school-boy, with his satchel
And shining morning face, creeping like a snail
Unwillingly to school. And then the lover.
Sighing like a furnace, with a woeful ballad
Made to his mistress' eyebrow. Then a soldier,
Full of strange oaths, and bearded like the pard.
26 The Problem op Measurement
Jealous in honor, sudden and quick in quarrel.
Seeking the bubble reputation
Even in the cannon's mouth. And then the justice,
In fair round belly with good capon lined;
With eyes severe, and beard of formal cut.
Full of wise saws and modern instances;
And so he plays his part. The sixth age shifts
Into the lean and slippered pantaloon.
With spectacles on nose and pouch on side.
His youthful hose, well saved a world too wide
For his shrunk shank; and his big manly voice,
Tarning again toward childish treble, pipes
And whistles in his sound. Last scene of all,
That ends this strange eventful history,
Is second childishness and mere oblivion.
Sans teeth, sans eyes, sans taste, sans everything. — As You Like It
And if we search the record of science, the observations
are only somewhat more formally expressed, as in the sum-
mary by H. L. Hollingworth who adds three significant "ages*
to complete the visible cycle :
HUMAN DEVELOPMENTAL STAGES*
Period Descriptiox
1. The germ plasm — The career and permutations of germinal elements,
representing biological heredity, and the contribution of determinants
by near and remote ancestry.
2. The fetal period — The life of the embryo, from the moment of con-
ception or ovum fertilization, to the time of birth.
3. The infant — The "neonate" or newborn imdividual, in its first few weeks
or months of life.
4. The babyhood age — The first three years of life, up to the point which,
if the individual does not intellectually pass, he remains an "idiot."
5. Questioning age — Centering at about the time of customary school
entrance, at the sixth year, the point which, if the individual does
not intellectually pass, he is characterized as an "imbecile."
6. "Big Injun" age — Culminating at about the eleventh year, the point
which, if the individual does not intellectually pass, he is described
as a "moron."
7. "The Awkward Age," adolescence — The typical high-school age, termi-
nating at or around the eighteenth year, with wide variations.
8. Maturity — The long stretch of economic, political and dotnestic respon-
sibility, running up to seventy years or thereabouts.
♦From HoixiNGWOETH, H. L. 1927. Mental growth and decline. New York:
D. Appleton, (p. 45). Reproduced by permission of author and publisher.
Techniques of Social Appraisal 27
9. Senescence — The period of decline, and in some cases of involution or
senile decay.
10. Post-mortem age — That period, brief or prolonged, in which the person-
al influence of the individual persists and the institutions he has had
a part in establishing remain effective.
Such epochal groupings have long proved useful for
practical orientation. They indicate that there are gross peri-
ods of maturation which can be roughly distinguished from
each other by characteristic level and type of social activity.
But these groupings are also rather arbitrary, subjective, and
correspondingly variable from one "grouper" to another. They
lack both comprehensiveness and precision from period to
period as well as from author to author, and this lack of
specificity greatly limits the usefulness of the distinctions.
Witness the whimsical taxonym of the Rotarian gastrologist :
DIETARY AGES
The eleven ages of man can be expressed in menu
form as follows :
1. Milk.
2. Milk and bread.
3. Milk, bread, eggs and spinach.
4. Oatmeal, bread and butter, green apples and all-day suckers.
5. Ice cream soda and hot dogs.
6. Minute steak, fried potatoes, coffee and apple pie.
7. Bouillon, roast duck, scalloped potatoes, creamed broccoli,
fruit salad, divinity fudge and demi-tasse.
8. Pate de foie gras, wiener schnitzel, potatoes Parisienne, egg
plant a I'opera, demi-tasse and Roquefort cheese.
9. Two soft-boiled eggs, toast and milk.
10. Crackers and milk.
11. Milk. — PhiladelpJiia Rotary Clut Bulletin.
Techniques of social appraisal. Since Binet and Simon,
this difficulty has been appreciably remedied. Their intelli-
gence scale, and especially their year-scale method, opened
new vistas of correlative study (Binet and Simon, 1916).
We now have so many scales for appraising maturation
in nearly all directions that it is impracticable to catalogue
them or even to cite some without injustice to others.
The attempt to trace our own scale to these sources so that
we might make due acknowledgment has proved too baffling
to record here since we drew upon general awareness of these
techniques rather than specific borrowings from them. And
since those techniques had their own antecedents we might
honestly enough claim to have been guided by the same. We
28
The Problem of Measurement
therefore leave it to others to make a game of detecting such
unconscious plagiarisms as may be more apparent to them
than they are to us.
Our greatest debt is to Alfred Binet, whose original observa-
tions, experiments and ideas, supplemented by joint work
with Th. Simon, we have freely employed throughout this
work. Those not intimately acquainted with this background
in the successive volumes of UAnnee Psychologique will find
profit in the selected translations by Eliz. S. Kite (Binet and
Simon, 1916), and in the able review by Edith J. Varon (1935).
That Binet and Simon anticipated the social ends sub-
served by intelligence is clear from their following classifi-
cation:
TABLE of TRAITS DISTINGUISHING IDIOT, IMBECILE and MORON*
Degree of
retardation.
Intellectual devel-
opment compared
to that of a nor-
mal child.
Sociftl relations
with other per-
sons.
Nature of the tasks
which these indi-
viduals can accom-
plish.
Idiot
Development of
0 to 2 years.
By gestures.
Grasp an object
presented, walk, sit
down, get up, etc.
Imbecile
Development of
+2 to 7 years.
By speech.
Eat alone, dress,
wash hands, keep
clean, sweep, make
a bed, shine shoes.
Moron
Development of
+ 7 to 12 years.
By writing.
Comb hair, garden,
v/ash, iron, make a
hem or a darn,
cook an egg or an
onion soup.
*From Binet, ALFBaa), and Th. Simon. L'Arri^ration. L'Ann^e Psychologique,
1910. Vol. 16, p. 353. Note that the translator has omitted "roll a hoop"
from the imbecile tasks, and has substituted "or an onion soup" (perhaps
too difficult) for "etc." at the moron level (Varon, 1935, p. 129).
Techniques of Social Appraisal
29
Goddard carried this "nature of the tasks" a step further
in his industrial classification of the feeble-minded by succes-
sive mental ages.
INDUSTRIAL CLASSIFICATION*
Mental
Age
Industrial Capacity
Grade
Under i^) Helpless, (b) Can walk, (c) With Low
1 year voluntary regard
1 year Feeds self. Eats everything Middle Idiot
2 years Eats discriminatingly (food from non-
food) High
Low
No work. Plays a little
Tries to help
Only simplest tasks
Tasks of short duration. Washes dishes
Little errands in the house. Dusts High
Middle Imbecile
8 " Errands. Light work. Makes beds Low
9 " Heavier work. Scrubs. Mends. Lays
bricks. Cares for bath-room
10 " Good institution helper. Routine work Middle Moron
11 " Fairly complicated work with only
occasional oversight
12 " Uses machinery. Can care for animals. High
No supervision for routine work.
Cannot plan
Forteus (1922) continued the elaboration in his industrial
and social rating scales, as did Buhl (1928) in his refined job
analysis of idiot performances. Yepsen (1928) added a be-
havioral adjustment schedule, Kuenzel (1929) an industrial
virtues score-card, and Oseretsky (Doll, 1946) a year-scale of
motor proficiency. Furfey (1931) studied developmental age in
terms of social interests, Wood and Lerrigo (1927) for health
behavior, Gesell (1925) for infant growth, Anderson and
Goodenough (1929) for family records, Rogers (1931) for
personality, Brace (1927) for motor ability, and so on.
These and many similar investigations are relevant to our
immediate task. They bear on the components and facets of
maturation and adjustment which in their integration reveal
♦Prom GooDARD, Henby H. 1914. Feeble-Mindedness: its causes and
consequences. New York: Macmillan, (p. 581), Reproduced by permission
of author and publisher.
30 The Problem of Measurement
social competence. But we cannot here be specifically concerned
with the extensive scientific literature (Euros, 1949) in these
and other fields such as the direct measurement of personality,
emotional maturity, educational attainment, or occupational
achievement. Two such unpublished endeavors, however, merit
special attention.
Myra Kuenzel's "Scale of Industrial Virtues" was part of
a larger program of studies in the field of job analysis and
serves to contrast the manner of behavior with its level.
SCALE OF INDUSTRIAL VIRTUES*
A. Quantity of Woek Done
1. Does more than others in the same work.
2. Does less than half of the work he is given to do.
3. Does more than half but less than all of the work he is
given to do.
4. Does all that he is told to do but no more.
5. Does more than he is given to do.
6. Is given no instructions since he does not do as told.
B. Quality of Wobk Done
1. Work must be done over again.
2. Quality of work is accepted.
3. Quality of work is approved with a feeling of satisfaction.
4. Quality of work is accepted although not liked.
5. Does better than others in the same work.
C. Improvement
1. Is not doing as good work as formerly (last week).
2. Is improving in his work.
3. Shows no improvement in his work.
4. Has reached top performance for job.
D. iNDUSTKtOUSNESS
1. Works regardless of hours.
2. Works according to schedule hours.
3. Watches for quitting time.
4. Does not put in full time.
E. Peoductivity
1. Gets as much done as do others in the same work.
2. Puts things off.
3. Doesn't do anything.
4. Gets things done.
5. Gets more dome than you expect him to do.
F. Good Nature
1. Seems to enjoy this work.
2. Works in an unconcerned manner.
3. Seems to dislike this work.
* BYom KuENzKL, Myra W. A score-card of industrial virtues. Unpublished
research form. The Vineland Laboratory. Reproduced by author's
permission.
Techniques of Social Appraisal 31
G. Ambitiousneiss
1. Loafs on the job.
2. Actions show no desire on his part to excel in this work.
3. Looks for work to do.
H. Supervision
1. Requires less attention than do others in the same work.
2. Has to be watched every minute.
3. Requires no more supervision than is given others in the
same woi'k.
4. Initiates own work.
I. YouB Attitude Toward Him
1. Enjoy his working for you.
2. Gets on your nerves.
3. Is part of your job to put up with him.
J. Cooperation
1. Does best work while working alone.
2. Does best work while working with others.
3. Does as good work while alone as when with others.
K. Friendliness
1, Others in the same work do not ask to work with him.
2, Others in the same work object to working with him.
3, Others in the same work ask to work with him.
L. Efficiency
1. Works too fast to do good work.
2. Works too slowly to be considered a good worker.
3. Does satisfactory work in an acceptable period of time.
4. Works more rapidly and effectively than is required,
M. Usefulness
1. Makes himself wanted.
2. Work would be better off without him.
3. Could be replaced without loss to work.
N. Destructfulness
1. Breaks things oftener than seems necessary.
2. Breaks no more than others in the same work.
3. Breaks nothing.
O. Economy
1. Wastes materials.
2. Uses that which he is given.
3. Economizes materials.
P. Reliability
1. Takes things which do not belong to him.
2. Takes nothing that does not belong to him.
Q. Truthfulness
1. Misrepresents his work.
2. Tells the truth about his work.
R. Capability
1. Has more ability that this job uses.
2. Has as much ability as this job requires.
3. Hasn't enough ability for this job.
S. Disability
1. Works under a mental or physical disability which makes the
work difficult.
2. Work is not affected by the disability if there is one.
3. Tires easily.
4. Was oflF duty recently because of illness.
32 The Problem of Measurement
The job analysis technique produces item performances within
job families analogous to the categorical items of the Social
Maturity Scale. But such analyses usually ignore mode of
performance in favor of degree of performance. The Kuenzel
scale permits estimation of the manner or quality of perform-
ance at any given level and is applicable to the entire range
of social competence from idiocy to superior adult extensions.
Such a scale is particularly useful in the supplementary estima-
tion of deviation in social competence, regression at senescence,
or in instances of mental or physical deterioration. (It is
observed elsewhere that in senescence, deterioration, or im-
pairment the Social Maturity Scale does not afford satisfactory
measures of losses in versatility of performance as contrasted
with level.)
Doll (1929) devised a score-card for evaluating changes
in the behavior of hospitalized mental patients prior to, during,
and following psychiatric care and treatment.
BEHAVIOR SCORE CARD
for
MENTALLY DISTURBED PATIENTS*
(Check the one item in each group which most nearly describes
the patient)
Score
Values
2 1. Is careless as to appearance of person and dress.
1 2. Dresses with care and is neat of person.
4 3. Tears clothing', presents dishevelled appearance, unclean
in person or habits.
3 4. Is specially preoccupied with dress, presents bizarre
appearance, shows vanity approaching exhibitionism.
B.
1. Becomes angry on slight provocation; swears, destroys
things, threatens people.
2. Conducts himself with extreme dignity of bearing, shows
exaggerated jwliteness.
3. Sulks, resists attempts to interest him, shows apathy
toward surroundings and events
4. Takes an alert interest in what is going on, goes about
his own business. •
* From Doll, Edgab A. A score-card for measuring the improvement of
mental patients. Unpublished research form. The Vineland Laboratory.
Difficulties Encountered 33
3 1. Fusses about trifles, "butts in," annoys people with
desire for attention.
2 2. Has queer mannerisms, assumes odd postures, runs a little
show of his own.
1 3. Gets along well with others, not easily upset. Is calm
and self-possessed.
4 4. Laughs a good deal, talks volubly, walks about and busies
himself with many activities, much ado about nothing,
D.
3 1. Believes people treat him unfairly, makes unreasonable
demands, fears for safety, thinks he is not well.
2 2. T^lks incoherently, wanders from the point in conversation,
introduces irrelevant ideas.
1 3. Sustains a rational conversation, can be relied upon to carry
out instructions, appreciates surroundings.
4 4. Acts as if he were someone else, actions are not consistent
with significant surroundings.
1 1. Takes an interest in surroundings, works cheerfully, reads
or engages in games or hobbies.
2 2. Keeps to himself, sits idle most of the time, does not enjoy
recreational pursuits.
4 3. Collects and hoai'ds meaningless trifles, values articles out
of all proportion to their worth.
1 4. Looks for work to do or seeks opportunities to be of help,
does not abuse freedom, discreet and can be trusted.
3 5. Engages in petty deceptions, appropriates the property of
others, misrepresents facts and events.
Difficulties encountered. Ask any person who has but little
hesitation in judging another's behavior what is the basis for
that judgment or what standards he employs, and his opinion
is immediately rendered uncertain. Ask any parent to enumer-
ate the evidence by which he feels assured of the normal
development of his children, and that parent becomes vaguely
inarticulate. Search the textbooks of genetic psyehology or so-
cial psychology and note how limited is the information that
can be usefully employed in preparing normative schedules of
development. Observe children yourself, compare notes with
others, reflect retrospectively on your own development, and
E.
34 The Problem of Measurement
note how elusive are both the content and the timing of such
maturation. Such observations require both direction and
quantification.
The attempt to reduce general observations to specific
definition does not often receive the immediate approval that
one might expect. The first reaction of others is one of skepti-
cism.. As Whitehead has observed, new ideas have a certain
aspect of foolishness when they are first produced. But we
agree with William A. McCall that "whatever exists at all
exists in some amount," and " anything that exists in amount
can be measured." Or as Binet and Simon said long ago,
"quantitative differences are of no value unless they are meas-
ured, even if measured but crudely."
Can we, then, through standardized measurement achieve
a more exact appraisal of social adequacy than has previously
been possible through observational estimation? It is a truism
in science that numerical measurement magnifies the difficulties
that were previously overlooked by subjective observation.
Refinement . of analysis exaggerates the variables it discloses.
When one asks "At what age does the normal child do this or
that?", or "What does the normal child do at this or that age?",
one gets the reply "It all depends." This phrase implies that
the nature of development varies from person to person by such
wide differences that no individual standard can be established.
It also implies that the rate of development is so heavily in-
fluenced by environmental variables that no genetically deter-
mined course of maturation can be plotted independently of
these variables.
These are real difficulties. To overcome them requires
persistent search for those features of development which are
more or less universal and which do follow an orderly progres-
sion. Behavior items must therefore be sought which are
relatively independent of specifically variable influences on
maturation. Items must also be sought in respect to which
individual differences in rate of development are at a minimum.
"It all depends," must be reduced to "It depends somewhat."
Consequently, out of a very large number of performances
that might easily be arrayed as indicative of development at
random ages, or for particular persons, or for specific nationali-
ties, or in isolated environments, those must be chosen which
reflect the innate biological potential that flowers more or less
constantly from person to person, age to age, and place to
place as milestones of growth of the organism as a whole.
Example of Analytic Method 35
There is ample evidence that regardless of environment the
human individual passes through a series of developmental
stages common to the species (Fortes, 1938; Mead, 1946).
These gross aspects of development have long been recognized ;
our present task is only to analyze them for finer degrees.
That this can be done with statistical precision we endeavor to
show in subsequent chapters.
Example of analytic method. Consider a single example.
Sooner or later every normal person feeds himself without
assistance. When does the average individual do this? What
are the successive stages and ages involved in this accomplish-
ment? Grant immediately that "it depends" more or less on
many circumstances, such as the kind of food, its availability,
how prepared or served, the utensils used for eating, the
etiquette of the occasion, the instruction or urging, or the lack
of these.
Immediately we must define what we mean by feeding one's
self. Assume that one need not prepare the food as a cook, nor
obtain it as a producer. Pass over the conditions which obtain
in a primitive environment where one may eat with one's
knuckles or from a gourd, to the ordinary U. S. environment
where one sits down to a table in a company, with (perhaps)
appropriate linen and utensils, using knife, fork, and spoon,
as well as cup, glass, and dish, and eats a variety of prepared
foods. We may consider this performance of caring for self
unassisted at table as meaning that the individual eats inde-
pendently as any mature person (in this respect) would in
similar circumstances. The circumstances, to be sure, may re-
quire particular definition ; using chopsticks may be more or less
difficult than using knuckles or knife and fork, and politely
dissecting a wing of fowl may not be so easy as gulping a
bowl of gruel.
Some definition then is necessary which shall be represent-
ative of the mode of behavior according to age and custom.
At the moment we are not comparative cultural anthropologists
nor students of etiquette in a long-established formal civiliza-
tion. Our immediate interest is confined to a representative
(defined) environment of general scope. In this environment
the child progresses from nursing at the breast to feeding from
a bottle, to drinking from a cup assisted, eating from a spoon
assisted, doing these unassisted, using a fork, using a knife,
helping himself, and so on. Such successive stages in the process
of self-help eating may be formulated without too much regard
86 The Problem of Measurement
for their minor variability. When subjected to empirical
examination the inconsequential details and the temporal
appearance of critical sequences become more clearly apparent.
Considering for the moment the major result, and not
forgetting that circumstances alter cases, we hardly expect the
infant at birth to care for himself without aid at the table, even
if by some miracle he could sit in a highchair to do so. Neither
do we expect him to do this at one year of age, or at two, three,
four, or five, although to be sure at these successive ages we
shall see the child making noticeable headway toward this goal,
as we may also note marked differences among children in
reaching it. Or if we view this performance from the other
extremity, we should expect to find some mental or physical
handicap among those who do not care for themselves inde-
pendently at the table after twenty years of age, or fifteen, or
perhaps twelve, or possibly ten.
From such considerations we "discover" that this feat
(complete care of self at table) is accomplished most commonly
between eight and ten years of age. Our data for this item
(p. 110) reveal an obtained per cent of "passes" at each
successive life age, from which may be calculated an average
age at which the performance is accomplished. The Thomson
means of our maturation data fall at 8.8 years for girls, and 9.3
years for boys.
We learn further that the standard deviation for these
means is 1.8 years for girls, and 1.4 years for boys. We may
combine the data and find that without regard for sex this
performance is average at 9.0 years, with a standard deviation
of 1.4 years, and with the extreme limits falling between 5 and
11 years. For what it might be worth we may calculate the
standard error of this total mean, or of the sex means, or the
statistical significance of the sex difference, and so on, with due
regard for th© limitations of the samples and the adequacy of
the original data. The variables which influence such results
can be isolated and to a degree empirically or statistically con-
trolled for further analysis. For example, the variation in rate
of development, or age at passing, for a given person may no
doubt be influenced more or less by environmental circum-
stances. In broadly similar cultures such variation is much
more probably due to individual differences in maturation or
to special handicaps respecting the various abilities involved in
accomplishing this act. Such variation will also be related to
"errors" of data (e.g., examining, scoring, sampling).
References 37
We could pursue this illustration further for other items of
the "self-help eating" category, or other categories of behavior.
In fact, such exposition will be the principal task of this volume.
Our purpose for the moment is to illustrate the hypothesis, and
particularly to show that whatever variability may be at issue
because of specific variables, whether correlative or selective,
may itself be expressed within definite statistical limits through
experimental inquiry as soon as a stando^rd concept has been
established.
REFERENCES
Anoebson, John E., and Florence L. Goodenough, 1929. The modern
bahy book and child development record: from birth to sixteen years.
New York: W. W. Norton.
Bij!?et, ALFiiED, and Th. Simon. 1910. L'Arrieration. UAnnee Psychologique,
16, 349-360.
BiNET, Alfred), and Th. Simon. 1916. The development of intelligence in
children. (Trans, by Elizabeth S. Kite.) Baltimore: Williams and
Wilkins.
Beace, David K. 1927. Measuring motor ability: a scale of motor ability
tests. New York: A. S. Barnes.
Buhl, Geokoe H. 1928. The education of low-grade feeble-minded through
job analysis. Training School Btilletin, 25, 1-10.
BuEos, OscAB K. (Ed.) 1949. The third mental measurements yearbook.
New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press.
Doll, Edgab A. 1929. A score-card for measuring the improvement of
mental patients. Unpublished research form. The Vineland Laboratory.
Doll, Edgar A. (Ed.) 1946. The Oseretsky tests of motor proficiency: a
translation from the Portuguese adaptation. (By Maria I. L. da Costa,
trans, by Elizabeth J. Fosa). Minneapolis: Educational Test Bureau.
(Reprinted from Training School Bulletin, AS, 1-13, 27-38, 50-59, 62-74).
FoBTEs, M. 1938. Social and psychological aspects of education in Taleland.
(Supplement to Africa, Vol. XI, No. 4). London: Oxford University
Press.
FuEFET, Paul H. 1931. A revised scale fdr measuring developmental age
in boys. Child Development, 2, 102-114.
Gesell, Arnold. 1925. The mental growth of the preschool child: a
psychological outline of normal development from birth to the sixth
year, including a system of developmental diagnosis. New York:
Macmillau.
38 The Problem of Measurement
GoDDARD, Henry H. 1914. Feeble-Mindedness: its causes and consequences.
New York: Macmillan.
HoLLiNGWOETH, H. L. 1927. Mental growth and decline. New York:
D. Appleton.
KuENzEL, Myba W. 1929. A score-card of industrial virtues. Unpublished
research form, The Vineland Laboratory.
Mead, Makgaret. 1946. Research on primitive children. In Leonabo
Caemichael (Ed.), Manual of Child Psychology, pp. 667-706. New York:
John Wiley and Sons.
Poeteus, S. D. 1922. Studies in mental deviations. Viaeland: The Training
School.
RoGEES, Gael R. 1931. Measuring personality adjustment in children nine
to thirteen years of age. New York: Teachers College, Columbia
University.
Vaeon, Edith J. 1935. The development of Alfred Binet's psychology.
Psychological Monographs, 46, No. 3.
Wood, Thomas D., and Maeion O. Lebbigo. 1927. Health behavior: a manual
of graded standards of habits, attitudes, and knowledge conducive to
health of the physical organism, and of personality, home, community
and race. Bloomington: Public School Publishing Co.
Yepsen, Lloyd N. 1928. Objective estimation of social behavior. Training
School Bulletin, 25, 33-41.
PART II
CONSTRUCTION OF SOCIAL MATURITY SCALE
Chapter 4. Design of the Scale
Chapter 5. Item Criteria
Chapter 6. Item Specification
Design of the Scale
// one should look at things as
they grow from the beginning it
would be the best method of study. — Aristotle
The preceding chapters comprise a general statement of the
problem and the concepts which underlie this method of meas-
uring social competence. The need for such a method is clear
and the manifold uses readily apparent. Following the leads
inherent in common observation, and coordinating the scattered
scientific material seems simple enough. So also the distant
mountain appears easy to scale until one explores its more
imminent ascents. A facetious rime well expresses the dilemma :
The centipede w^as happy quite
I'ntil the toad, in fun,
Said, pray, which leg moves after which?
This raised her doubts to such a pitch
She fell distracted in the ditch,
Not knowing how to run. — Marion Quinlan Davis
General plan of full scale. The procedure finally adopted
was somewhat as follows. We first canvassed the nature and
course of genetic development as revealed by ordinary obser-
vation, the scientific literature and general knowledge. With
few exceptions, the literature proved fertile in general trend
but strikingly barren of specific material that satisfied our re-
quirements. The studies of child development (especially for
the decade 1920 — 1930) proved helpful for the period of early
infancy, but offered little after the close of the pre-school period.
The genetic milestones of the road to maturity were few in
number, indeterminately spaced, and vaguelj^ inscribed; the
traveler was guided by a variable compass and shifting land-
marks.
Supplementing these broad resources we drew upon our
own observations of normal children during a quarter century
of child-study supplemented by intimate acquaintance with the
feeble-minded. The latter in many ways afford slow-motion or
"still" pictures of human maturation which makes possible
more detailed analysis of developmental stages than is practica-
40 Design of the Scale
ble among normal children (who pass these stages too rapidly
for minute appraisal). And since the initial purpose of the
proposed scale was to measure subnormal degrees of social
maturation, these observations on the feeble-minded were
specifically relevant. Moreover, among the various types and
degrees of deficiency we could note the presumptive influence of
age and experience, general intelligence, special abilities and
disabilities, effect of instruction, and above all the discrimina-
tive value of such items among those permanently retarded in
social maturation.
From this background we sought to assemble an inventory
of genetically apparent performances which would serve to
distinguish one level of attainment from another. What are the
specific social accomplishments of normal childern at say five,
ten, fifteen, or twenty years which characterize "growing up" ?
Which of these afford the sharpest discrimination at successive
ages? Which of them are significant of social adequacy? How
can these periods be reduced to smaller intervals and yet retain
discriminative distinctiveness ? By what performances are nor-
mal persons at any age superior to morons, morons to imbeciles,
and imbeciles to idiots? Can these differences be expressed in
age-scale units similar to mental-age scores ?
Such inventories were constructed by listing apparently
significant segments of maturation that seemed to distinguish
one normative age-level from another and each mental defi-
ciency level from its neighbors. As major criteria for itemizing
such performances it seemed desirable that all items should have
relatively universal appearance, rapid emergence, prolonged
retention, and biogenetic socially significant value.
It soon became evident that such detailed performances
fell somewhat naturally into major categories of expression
which included progressive degrees of essentially similar
activity. It was equally evident that these progressions might
be segmented as distinctive stages of the categorical behavior in
question. We subsequently combined these two procedures by
pooling from all categories those items which most obviously
discriminated successive age levels.
In this we followed few preconceived notions either as to
the abilities present at a given age or the categorical relations
of such items. Our initial task was to enumerate as many per-
formances as possible that seemed characteristic of successive
life ages, using information regarding both the age periods and
the categorical aspects of development. Of prime importance
General Plan of Full Scale 41
was the requirement that each item should bear pertinent rela-
tion to social competence.
Other considerations required that the itents of the Scale
be relatively independent of the specific influence of sex (so
that we might have a single scale for both sexes), personality,
conventions, social status, special environmental opportunity,
and the like, as such. Further, we decided to retain only those
items which represented the ultimate capitalization of personal
abilities and experiences for social competence rather than these
for their own sake. We chose deliberately to select items which
reflected the tout ensemble of social expression. Consequently
we discarded items which seemed to be specific measures of
intelligence, skill, attitudes, habits, specific achievement, and
the like, preferring instead the more generalized and more
universal utilitarian end-results produced by their correlated
application. As will appear later, we were not altogether
successful in identifying social maturity with social competence.
In adopting this point of view we assumed that in the
normal course of growth and development the individual
dominates, capitalizes, or utilizes his environmental opportuni-
ties according to the stage of genetic evolution in which he may
be at the time. We were not immediately concerned with the
extent to which this learning was the product of formal instruc-
tion, imitation, original adaptation, or the bio-social urge to
self-expression. Fortunately for this purpose, the democratic
atmosphere of the United States environment and the gener-
al freedom of social opportunity afford almost unlimited scope
for social maturation. The generally high level of material and
scholastic culture, the comparative freedom from political and
economic restraints, the comparative wealth and universality
of social expression, encourage the fullest personal exploitation
of the environment possible according to one's native ability
and stage of development. These opportunities are incidental,
accidental, and consequential; their effects are direct and
indirect, causal and casual.
Our thesis bears repeating, namely, that the child is rel-
atively, helpless at birth, gradually "takes over" increasing
responsibility for his own personal needs, later assumes
responsibility for the welfare of others, and in the highest
forms of self-expression contributes to the general welfare of
society. In the involutional stage of post-maturity (senescence) ,
and in disordered mental states or physical conditions, he may
revert to more or less dependent status from loss or impairment
of vigor.
42 Design of the Scale
Requirements. What principles govern the selection of
items for such a scale?
1. A choice must be made regarding the environmental
limits within which the scale is to be considered standard. This
scale is designed for general use in (a) "ordinary" urban and
rural (U.S.) situations, (b) within the "usual" limits of social-
economic status as a whole, (c) over the entire range of literacy,
(d) for the complex of nationality derivations found in this
country in large numbers. Obviously, the validations for such
generalities must depend upon further inquiry, without which
we cannot know how adequately the Vineland sample represents
the total U.S. population and its cultural differences. We must
therefore leave to later applications of the Scale the determina-
tion of major environmental differences and their effect on the
standardization of the items. This would require composite
sampling of the population according to proportional represen-
tation and other details. In other words, the "addends" require
more explicit exposition both as to their specification and their
effects,
2. We must decide whether to have a separate scale for
each sex, or a single scale for both sexes. For practical reasons
a single scale offers decided advantages. This merely requires
that items which show presumptive or demonstrated sex
differences be excluded and only those items retained which are
equally applicable to both sexes. Thus, in Item 75 (Cares for
self at table) there is a mean sex difference of .45 years in favor
of the girls, but the statistical reliability (critical ratio) of this
difference is only .60 (and therefore not statistically signifi-
cant). Moreover, the amount of difference is relatively small.
This criterion is made more explicit in the discussion of item
standardization (Chapter 6) .
In place of a separate scale for each sex or a single scale
for both, a combination scale might be constructed with certain
items alternative for the sexes. This has been avoided except in
a few instances where the same item is alternatively defined.
For the rest, the sex differences which remain are of limited
significance, and their effects are further compensated in the
total scores. The total elimination of sex differences must await
a more extensive revision or standardization. As we shall note
later, such total elimination may be undesirable as well as
impracticable. For there may well be genuine differences which
should be revealed rather than obscured, or clarified rather than
suppressed.
Requirements 43
3. Each item should show rapid rise and consistency for its
maturation period. In other words, the extreme limits within
which success and failure are comprised in successive life-age
groups should be narrow ; that is, the standard deviation of the
distribution should be small. As a matter of fact, for the
majority of our items (sexes combined) the total maturational
spread is less than six years, the standard deviation is less
than 1.10 years, and the coefficient of variability is less than 30.
4. It is desirable that item "success" should be retained
rather than lost in successive stages of maturation. Continued
maturation may involve the loss of some types of behavior while
acquiring others, as the organism evolves. For example, the play
activities of early childhood are superceded by the creative
realities of adolescence, for as related Biblically, "When I be-
came a man I put away childish things." It is desirable that the
individual be scored throughout the entire range of develop-
ment ; hence if loss of function is taken as an evidence of matu-
rity, this introduces a difficulty due to the fact that the actual
scoring of an item then requires knowledge as to whether the
absence of habitual performance is due to immaturity or to post-
maturity. This principle need not apply, however, to those
items which might be employed when loss of function represents
a return to an earlier stage of dependence because of mental or
physical impairment. The violation of this principle for certain
items is discussed in relation to the item specifications
(Chapter 6).
5. It is essential that such a scale be employed in its
entirety either in fact or by implication since the maturity
level of the individual is indicated by his total score on the
scale as a whole. It is therefore necessary not only to calibrate
the scale item by item, but also to standardize the total scores.
Each item of this scale reveals some lower age at which
there is total absence of performance on the part of the most
gifted or precocious individuals, and most items some upper
age at which the performance is present in all individuals ex-,
cept those whose development has been reduced by extreme
mental, social, or environmental handicap. At the upper ex-
tremity of the Scale some items are ultimately passed by only
a majority, and others by only a minority. The final items are
passed only rarely or not at all by the most competent S's
(subjects) in our sample. In short, each item reveals a matura-
tion that may be plotted statistically as progressive percentages
44 Design of the Scale
of passing for successive life ages. The central tendencies of
these curves yield a numerically precise calibration of scale
units and the standard deviations of these means afford criteria
for item selection in relation to specific influences.
6. The items finally retained must be susceptible of explicit
definition, and adequate information must presumptively be
obtainable for satisfying these definitions with a minimum of
equivocation. Many otherwise desirable items were discarded
because of the difficulty of clear specification, or that of obtain-
ing suitable evidence. This was conspicuously apparent on items
of school attainment where the useful application of attained
literacy proved difficult to evaluate. It is hardly to be expected
that all items will equally satisfy this requirement of clearcut
definition and evidence. The present weaknesses of particular
items can be corrected; such specific shortcomings do not
seriously affect the Scale as a whole.
Range of application. What are the limits of social matu-
rity that can be measured by such a device ? We have discussed
the helplessness of the new-born infant as equivalent to the
approximate zero of the Scale. Indeed, the zero point of social
maturity is somewhat below that of the new-born infant,
dating as far back as at least early fetal movement.
We have seen a mental patient in a state of catalepsy whose
social behavior was less than that of the new-born infant. This
patient displayed no movement whatever other than occasional
faint twitchings of the eyelids. Not even the simplest self-
sustaining functions were operative aside from such involuntary
vital processes as respiration, circulation, digestion and
elimination. This patient was tube-fed, since even swallowing
or the most elementary feeding mechanisms were inhibited.
Even elimination had to be induced by cathartic and enema.
Such a person is hardly even vegetative since his performances
are at such low ebb that even vital functions are not self-
sustained and the capacity for independent survival is less than
that of a rooted plant. Yet we may not say that the mental life
of such a person is absolutely nil even though there be at the
time no evidence of such activity. It is not unusual for such a
patient on recovery to have clear recollection of the experiences
going on about him at the time although to all appearances in a
complete state of coma.
And lest this simple illustration seem unique we may note
whole categories of extreme deficiency, either developmental
or involutional, associated with mental or physical disabilities
The Interview Method 45
such as vegetative idiocy, severe cerebral palsy, terminal
dementia, the final stages of Parkinsonism, and so on.
At the other pole, the height of social maturity may be
said to be reached by those individuals who control the destinies
of others in large measure. Here we encounter the difficulty of
appraising moral social values. Was Aristotle socially more
"mature" than Alexander, or Nietzche more "competent" than
Bismark? Shall we esteem ethical, spiritual, and intellectual
expression above political, economic, and military leadership?
We shall subsequently propound a philosophy of social values on
which the adult items of this scale are postulated. We shall
have no little difficulty defending the thesis that the sword is
mightier than the pen, that Caesar was socially more competent
than Paul, or Stalin than Gandhi. For the immediate superiority
of the extrovert does not outlive the ultimate influence of the
introvert. We agree with Poincaire that "the conquests of
industry which have enriched so many practical men would
never have seen the light, if these practical men alone had
existed and if they had not been preceded by unselfish devotees
who died poor, who never thought of utility." On the other
hand the "practical" ones do harvest such fruits.
For completeness vv^e have endeavored to include both
points of view. The most mature individual would therefore
be he who is both teacher and statesman, or both conqueror and
ruler, a Plato equal to the practical exploitation of his own
philosophy, or a Napoleon politically able to unite Europe. This
involves the difficult question of what constitutes social
progress, since it has been so frequently evident that efforts
toward world domination have resulted only in social desolation.
The interview method. Such a scale could be formulated
as a rating scale, in which case the subject would be described
in respect to his performances on the basis of the personal opin-
ion of some observer. These opinions would be relatively
subjective values inferred from observations and would vary
according to the standards employed by the informant in ex-
pressing his opinions. The method would be only moderately
improved by adopting more recent rating scale techniques.
In place of such a rating scale, we might employ represent-
ative standard situations for "testing" a subject's capabilities.
This alternative has the merit of relative objectivity but is
obviously not suited to our purposes, first because of the es-
sential difficulty of providing practical test situations as labo-
46 Design of the Scale
ratory equivalents of the behavior in question, and also because
such observations would reveal only what the subject can do at
the time of examination rather than what he does do routinely.
Since it is our purpose in measuring social behavior to
describe the expression of abilities in terms of their capitaliza-
tion for socially significant purposes, we are concerned not so
much with innate ability as with overt performance. Conse-
quently we desire to appraise a person's habitual or customary
behavior as an established mode of conduct rather than as a
potential for acquiring such conduct. Hence we require of the
method that it should reveal what the subject typically does
in daily life (within the limits of repeated experience) rather
than what he could do if required.
In place of test observations we must therefore rely upon
report. But this returns us to the pitfalls of the rating scale
method. To avoid this we must seek relatively objective state-
ments as factual descriptions, which are comparatively free
from mere opinion or subjective (inferred value) standards.
We require more than a statement of yes or no, or of more or
less. In short, we require specific information regarding overt
behavior which can be evaVimted by the examiner on the basis
of standard definitive formulation.
Calibration principle. Assuming a satisfactory system of
examination, and a fair degree of adequacy for the data so
obtained, the next problem is that of "normalizing" the material
in the form of a standardized scale. The basic units of measure-
ment within the data are the LA (life age) item norms. But
the ultimate performance unit to be standardized is the norma-
tive sum of item successes. The items must therefore be
arranged in some systematic fashion, and the total scores
reduced to standard units. These are to be expressed as age-
norms since this is the basic equivalent standard for expressing
the performance values.
Such numerical derivatives are inevitably conventional rather
than "natural" units since the performance scores afford no
(other) dimensional measure. These derived units are in-
fluenced by the particular principle employed in the treatment
of data suggested by logical, mathematical and practical con-
siderations (cf. p. 373 and p. 380).
While various modes of treatment have acquired a general
acceptance (or at least vogue) , no "best way" has yet become
a final criterion. In the present state of experimentation dif-
ferent procedures afford relative advantages and limitations
Calibration Principle 47
according to the materials and problems at issue. In designing
the structural form of a scale such as this, one must therefore
exercise those predilections which seem most advisable in
view of all circumstances.
In constructing the present scale we sought a compromise
between the intricacies of recent statistical developments and
the looseness of earlier analysis. Simplicity and clarity as well
as practicability are virtues not to be lightly bartered for
mathematical complexities which have not yet proved their
empirical worth. As Kurt Lewin once observed, "Theory is
great, but we musn't let it get in our way." For the involved
theory and extensive labor attending these methods yield
products whose ultimate merits are still dubious. And lest such
a statement seem dogmatic or apologetic we should perhaps
add that this conclusion was reached in this work only after
a thoughtful appraisal of the statistical resources at present
variously advocated. A resume of these arguments is not here
desirable. Nor is it feasible to review the trial treatments of
data which helped to decide the above standpoint.
As a first requirement it was deemed desirable to arrange
the Scale items in a statistically definite hierarchy. This pro-
vided a schedule of performances in orderly progression of
mean life-age values for the entire maturation period covered
by each item for all subjects examined.
The specific data are reported in Chapter 6. Other progres-
sions may depart from this one (a) by statistically determi-
nable (but probably minor) amounts if the size of the sample
is increased, (b) by generally predictable amounts if the
selectivity of the sample is modified in known directions, (c) by
relatively unpredictable (but perhaps appreciable) amounts if
the standards of administration or scoring are notably altered,
and (d) by serious amounts if the items themselves are
modified in number, scope or form. Since all of these variables
are subject to at least some variation in other samples, it is
to be expected that other standardizations may yield corre-
sponding revisions of item arrangement and age-scores (as in
the Maxfield-Fjeld adaptation for young blind subjects, p. 531).
These progressions will further be modified by the particu-
lar procedures employed for determining them for any given
body of data. Of the different methods and various criteria
advocated for treating this type of data the Thomson method
was adopted as the most objective and otherwise satisfactory-
This method affords a statistically accurate mean difficulty for
each item by taking account of all data from total absence to
48 Design of the Scale
total presence of passes for each item throughout the entire
maturation period. It also yields a standard measure of varia-
bility which in turn permits statistical appraisal of the relia-
bility of differences of means.
The precise order of progression of items of the final Scale
is based on mean life-age maturation. To accomplish this we
employed a selected sample rather than a random sample. The
consistency of the selection at successive stages is indicated by
the central tendencies for such influences as paternal occupa-
tion and bi-parental schooling as well as by the subjects' own
occupation and schooling (Chapter 9). The influence of the
number of cases (S's) on the item norms and age norms can be
statistically calculated from the data. The results are further
stabilized by having been gathered and scored by one examiner
as well as initially treated under that person's immediate super-
vision. Hence the standardization may be taken as unusually
dependable within the limits of the data.
Point-scale principle. The arrangement of items in
sequential order of difficulty is not essential to point-scale
standardization, but does facilitate and clarify such an outcome.
Moreover, since the Thomson method affords not only a statis-
tically conventional progression, but also yields precise year-
locations of items, the Scale is a "neater" instrument and has
more meaning. This simplifies the conversion of the point-scale
arrangement to a year-scale.
For present purposes a point-scale may be defined as a
series of items graded according to some criterion in such a
manner that a given sum of points may be expressed as
criterion-unit values. In the present scale the normative unit
of grading is life age and the corresponding values are the
mean point scores corresponding to successive mean ages. As
a point-scale, total point-scores may be converted to age-values
(termed SA or "social age") by interpolation or from a stand-
ard table (Chapter 7).
Year-scale principle. A year-scale as distinguished from a
point-scale is one in which the items are arranged in year-groups
as well as (or rather than) in simple point progression. Age-
scores may be calculated directly from a year-scale without
resort to conversion tables.
The Binet-Simon Scale is a well-known example of year-
scale construction. (In the Yerkes-Bridges-Hardwick modi-
fication and in the Herring Revision it is arranged as a point-
Year Scale Principle 49
scale.) That scale was first presented in 1905 as a roughly
progressive series of test items. In the 1908 version the year-
scale principle was adopted and has been retained in most of
the subsequent reformulations. The items (tests) of such a
scale are typically arranged in a rough approximation to
progressive order of difficulty on the principle of being passed
by a majority of the subjects of the age-level at which each item
"standardizes." This "majority" has been uncertainly defined
and dubiously determined by most workers. (The more pre-
cise procedures proposed by Otis, Kuhlmann, Thurstone,
Thorndike and others have not been widely employed.) The re-
sulting inadequacies disturb the internal "neatness" of such
scales ; while not gravely disturbing, they induce a wider "scat-
ter" in individual results. Other year-scales have employed
other procedures (as in the year-scale arrangement of the
Pintner-Paterson Performance Scale). And of course many
scales are designed on other principles. Indeed, many students
are vigorously opposed to the year-scale (commonly called
mental-age) principle.
The method herein employed, which gives precise mean-
age values to each item for its total maturation range, and
which derives age-scores from point-scores, has many practical
advantages over the empirical method of the Binet-type scale.
The Social Scale has been arranged as a year-scale by
segmenting the successive items in groups according to sequen-
tial interval point-scores as year-equivalents (Chapter 9). The
numerical progression of items represents the order of difficulty
in terms of mean-age calibration. This numerical progression
considered cumulatively is reduced to total point scores, and
these are further reduced to age-level groups by progressive
interpolation (Chapter 9). The SA item values are then taken
as proportional to the number of items per year-group.
It is a convenience, but not a necessity, to have the same
number of items for each year group. This would give all items
equal values (where the year intervals are equal) since each
would have the same fractional year value, and these values
could be easily memorized. And the number of items per year
could be determined so as to simplify fractional or decimal
additions as convenient multiples of years or months.
In this Scale, instead of an equal number of tests per year-
interval the number decreases progressively as age level in-
creases. At some year-intervals the point scores standardize
50 Design of the Scale
unevenly or by such small increments that it is advisable to com-
bine intervals and assume a smooth distribution between in-
tervals. The individual items are therefore of unequal age-score
value. Hence point-score values are retained by summing the
total number of items passed. The age-score may then be ob-
tained by interpolation from the blank or from the conversion
table (since the point-score age-scores are the same as the
year-score age-scores throughout the Scale).
The advantages of the year-scale principle are therefore of
the order of practical convenience. For example :
1. The year-scale arrangement of items facilitates identify-
ing and memorizing the items in terms of their central matu-
ration value.
2. It simplifies administration of the Scale by suggesting
the most probable area of examining in relation to life age, or
score level, and within categories.
3. It makes the Scale more readily intelligible to the layman
or the amateur examiner, and thus encourages more meaningful
attitudes toward its acceptance, mastery and use.
4. It permits direct calculation of age-scores from the blank
without need for consulting conversion tables.
5. It encourages use of the Scale as a history schedule of
child development.
6. It calls attention to the Scale's internal constitution, such
as numbers of items per age-level, categorical loading at differ-
ent intervals, change in item content with age, which are less
readily apparent in the point-scale alone.
The final Scale. From such considerations the initial de-
scriptive outline of motor improvement with which this work
began grew into a developmental schedule of manifold per-
formances, then a calibrated sequence of social maturation,
then to a standardized point-scale and finally a combination of
these into a year-scale. This is accomplished in Chapter 9
(see p. 373 and p. 380). The outcome is anticipated here in the
record blank for the Scale which follows.
The Final Scale
51
VINELAND SOCIAL MATURITY SCALE*
Name
Sex
... Grade Date
Residence
Descent Born
M.A. or LQ.
or
M.G.U P.A
Test Used
When Age
Occupation
Class..
.... Yrs. Exp Schooling
Father's Occupation ...
Class..
.... Yrs. Exp Schooling
Mother's Occupation ...
Class..
.... Yrs. Exp Schooling
Informant
...Relationship
Recorder
Informant's £iSt.
Basal Score
T? PTniiTlr^i '
Additional Pts
AkrClXACkl. JViD ■
Total Score _
Age Equivalent
Social Quotient
Categories** Item
Age Levels
O — I
C
1.
"Crows"; laughs
SHG
2.
Balances head
SHG
3.
Grasps objects within reach
S
4.
Reaches for familiar persons
SHG
5.
Rolls over
SHG
6.
Reaches for nearby objects
0
7.
Occupies self unattended
SHG
8.
Sits unsupported
SHG
9.
Pulls self upright
C
10.
"Talks"; imitates !
sounds
SHE
11.
Drinks from cup or glass assisted
L
12.
Moves about on floor
SHG
13.
Grasps with thumb and finger
S
14.
Demands personal
attention
S H G
15.
Stands alone
SHE
16.
Does not drool
C
17.
Follows simple instructions
I — II
L
18.
Walks about room
unattended
0
19.
Marks with pencil
or crayon
SHE
20.
Masticates food
SHD
21.
Pulls off socks
0
22.
Transfers objects
SHG
23.
Overcomes simple
obstacles
0
24.
Fetches or carries
familiar objects
SHE
25.
Drinks from cup or glass unassisted
SHG
26.
Gives up baby carriage
S
27.
Plays with other
children
SHE
28.
Eats with spoon
L
29.
Goes about house
or yard
SHE
30.
Discriminates edible substances
♦Copyright, 1936, The Training School at Vineland N. J
**Key to categorical arrangement of items:
SHG — Self-help general C — Communication
SHD — Self-help dressing
SHE — Self-help eating
SD
S-
Self -direction
Socialization
L — Locomotion
O — Occupation
52 Design of the Scale
Uses names of familiar objects
Walks upstairs miassisted
UnwT.'aps candy
Talks in short sentences
II — III
Asks to go to toilet
Initiates own play activities
Removes coat or dress
Eats with fork
Gets drink unassisted
Dries own hands
Avoids simple hazards
Puts on coat or dress vmassisted
Cuts with scissors
Relates experiences
III — IV
Walks downstairs one step per tread
Plays cooperatively at kindergarten level
Buitons coat or dress
Helps at little household tasks
"Performs" for others
Washes hands unaided
IV — V
Cares for self at toilet
Washes face unassisted
Goes about neighborhood unattended
Dresses self except tying
Uses pencil or crayon for drawing
Plays competitive exercise games
V — VI
Uses skates, sled, wagon
Prints simple words
Plays simple table games
Is trusted with money
Goes to school unattended
VI — VII
Uses table knife for spreading
Uses pencil for writing
Bathes self assisted
Goes to bed unassisted
VII — VIII
Tells time to quarter hour
Uses table knife for cutting
Disavows literal Santa Claus
Participates in pre-adolescent play
Combs or brushes hair
vin— IX
Uses tools or utensils
Does routine household tasks
Reads on own initiative
Bathes self unaided
DC — X
Cares for self at table
Makes minor purchases
Goes about home town freely
c
31.
L
32.
SHE
33.
C
34.
SHG
35.
0
36.
SHD
37.
SHE
38.
SHE
39.
SHD
40.
SHG
41.
SHD
42.
0
43.
C
44.
L
45.
S
46.
SHD
47.
0
48.
s
49.
SHD
50.
SHG
51.
SHD
52.
L
53.
SHD
54.
0
55.
S
56.
0
57.
C
58.
s
59.
SD
60.
L
61.
SHE
6-2.
C
63.
SHD
64.
SHD
65.
SHG
66.
SHE
67.
S
68.
S
69.
SHD
70.
0
71.
0
72.
c
73.
SHD
74.
SHE
75.
SD
76.
L
77.
The Final Scale 53
X — XI
C 78. Writes occasional short letters
C 79. Makes telephone calls
O 80. Does small remunerative work
C 81. Answers ads; purchases by mail
XI — XII
Does simple creative work
Is left to care for self or others
Enjoys books, newspapers, magazines
XII — XV
Plays difficult games
Exercises complete care of dress
Buys own clothing accessories
Engages in adolescent group actiAdties
Performs responsible routine chores
XV — XVIII
Communicates by letter
Follows current events
Goes to nearby places alone
Goes out unsupervised daytime
Has own spending money
Buys all own clothing
XVIII — XX
Goes to distant points alone
Looks after own health
Has a job or continues schooling
Goes out nights vinrestricted
Controls oM'n major expenditures
Assumes personal responsibility
XX — XXV
Uses money providently
Assumes responsibilities beyond own needs
Contributes to social welfare
Provides for future
. XXV+
Performs skillled work
Engages in beneficial recreation
Systematizes own work
Inspires confidence
Promotes civic progress
Supei-vises occupational pursuits
Purchases for others
Directs or manages affairs of others
Performs expert or professional work
Shares community responsibility
Creates own opportunities
Advances general welfare
It is evident that the Scale is more heavily "loaded" at the
early stages and "thins out'" progressively toward the higher
levels. There are several reasons for this outcome. First, the
young infant has a narrow spread of years over which the
0
82.
SD
83.
C
84.
S
85.
SHD
86.
SD
87.
S
88.
0
89.
C
90.
C
91.
L
92.
SD
93.
SD
94.
SD
95.
L
96.
SD
91.
0
98.
SD
99.
SD
100.
SD
101.
SD
102.
S
103,
S
104.
SD
105.
0
106.
0
107.
0
108.
s
109.
s
110.
0
111.
SD
112.
0
113.
0
114.
s
115.
0
116.
s
117.
54 Design of the Scalb
examination may be considered, and consequently the number
of items must be increased in relation to the age interval in
order to obtain reliability and representativeness for the
measure. Toward the adult level the situation changes as year
differences become less meaningful due to the "compression
effect" of the ultimate ceiling of maturation. Here we reach the
upper limit of measurement of individual differences in terms
of area as well as altitude. Moreover, few of the adult items
reach complete expression for the average person, and some are
specifically designed to yield only rare success. Consequently
the successes for the adult items by their very nature do not
attain to a very high percentage of incidence. In other words,
growth over its total span tends to be logarithmic rather than
rectilinear and the problem of equal units is not readily resolved.
We must assume that the technically interested reader is
reasonably familiar with these issues and the many publications
bearing on them.
It is of course possible to expand the number of items at
each age level, and it is important that this be done ultimately
for the refinement of measures at all ages, and especially for
the adolescent period. This task, however, is not so easy as at
first appears if one adheres to the criteria specified above and
selects items rather rigorously as measures of fundamental
rather than superficial differences. Nevertheless, this task is
by no means impossible and is, indeed, suggested as one import-
ant further development to anticipate.
We have in fact elaborated certain items as a Cottage
Activities Chart (p. 548) for estimating the more minute
degrees of progress in training for institutionalized feeble-
minded wards. For this purpose Item 35 (Asks to go to toilet)
was expanded into eighteen details. Items 21 and 37 (undress-
ing) were increased to nineteen, and so on.
Finally, the item-categories are not co-extensive, or evenly
spread, for all life-age ranges. This is most obviously due to
changes in the direction of social competence as maturation
proceeds, so that some categories "peter out" as others emerge
(cf. p. 577). The problem here is to portray social maturation
as it flowers rather than to fit its measurement into a precon-
ceived logic of psychology.
Item Criteria
Youth lives in the future. It matters not so much what the
young is as ichat he promises to hecome. So he has amliitions and
the eagerness to get at the business of realizing them. Middle
age lives in the present. Amhition is realized or it is not, but it
ceases to become an emotional drive. Middle age vieios approaching
old age and is content to hang on to -what it has and fearful of
losing that. Hope has become foreboding. Old age lives in the past.
When the reminiscences begin, one can say icith certainty, ''This man
is old."
—The Kalends
General considerations. To repeat, in designing this scale
two approaches were employed, (a) a broad detailed inventory
of performances which seemed distinctive for successive age
periods, and (b) a generalized categorical evaluation of behavior
throughout the life span. These reciprocal advances led to a
critical selection of items as detailed phases of categorical be-
havioral progression. We now proceed to a more particular
consideration of these items and categories with reference to
the specific criteria underlying their definitive formulation.
First, it may be well to recapitulate and elaborate some of
the premises involved in the conception of these items.
1. Each item is presumed to reflect some relatively univer-
sal performance which characterizes a definite stage of social
maturation.
2. By social maturation is here meant the developmental
evolution of behavior as revealed by the integrated expression
of experience and learning for successive stages of adequacy in
personal independence, interpersonal cooperation, and group
responsibilities.
3. This progressive adequacy is viewed as a continuing pro-
cess of biological survival and social continuity. (We are not
concerned here with other telegenic philosophies regarding life
purpose or value except, perhaps, as these may adventitiously
influence individual aspiration toward achievement beyond mere
survival.)
4. In this continuity of human survival we see the organism
at first dependent (cared for), then independent (caring for
self), then protective (caring for others) and finally again
dependent (senescent).
56 Item Criteria
5. This process of evolution and involution occurs within,
and is modified by, both physical and social surroundings which
affect the form and extent of expression of genetic potential at
successive stages of maturation. Presumably the relative influ-
ence of nature and nurture can be factored, although not herein
attempted — our immediate concern being with social outcome
and secondarily with causes.
6. Representative forms of such behavior are observed as
self-help, locomotion, occupation, communication, self -direction,
and socialization. These categorical designations of behavior
are not mutually exclusive but represent the variable aggregates
of total maturation.
This classification is indicated by the special content of the item
in question, although each item reflects a central factor of self-
sufficiency in terms of age expectancy. There is consequently
no need to insist upon the uniqueness of the classifications.
What is more important is the degree of attainment within
each. As we shall see, some of the items might have been nearly
as well placed in other groups. Nor is there any implication that
these are the only groupings or the only items which might have
been considered. Rather they are categories and items which
after careful consideration seemed reasonably representative
of developmental progression as candid photographs of social
competence throughout its maturational course.
7. While we may assume that all aspects of maturation are
relevant to social adequacy, it seems evident that some forms
are more relevant than others. Hence "maturity" and "compe-
tence" are not identical terms and we are immediately concerned
only with their relative identification.
Thus Item 68 (Disavows literal Santa Claus), which deals
with the repudiation of animistic (anthropomorphic) phantasy,
marks a stage of "growing up" which bears rather subtly on
social adequacy as reflecting a more realistic outlook on experi-
ence. Instead of leaving it all to "the Lord" we try to help
ourselves. Instead of appealing to "the stars" we look for the
fault in ourselves. Instead of blaming pixies or Jove for dis-
rupting our affairs we "remove the bugs" and materialize the
mysteries.
So, too, competence as a consequence of maturity varies with
environment. The linguistically mature person may be com-
petent in his own language yet incompetent in some other. The
blind may be linguistically mature and competent in Braille if
not in other forms of writing or print. The deaf may be mature
in "written speech" and competent in "sign" communication
General Considerations 57
while incompetent in oral speech. The crippled may be mature
for social locomotion but handicapped in physical locomotion.
So also one may be mature yet dependent, as in master and
valet, executive and secretary, or husband and wife.
But such competencies in respect to maturity are "special cases"
which may be insightfully allowed for as divisions of labor or
as artifacts of particular environments. In some instances they
respond to the technique of NO (no opportunity or no occasion)
scoring and in others to double scoring (Chapter 7). In still
other instances the allowance must be interpreted according to
the attending circumstances. The same principles apply to
idiosyncracies of environmental status or surroundings.
8. The items are selected as representing (a) rather dis-
tinct aspects of individual development, (b) rapid emergence
within a comparatively brief span of years, and (c) relative
freedom from marked individual and sex differences within the
normative period of maturation (Chapter 6).
9. The items are conceived as integrative composites of
such specific "trait" qualities as personality, habit, motivation,
memory, judgment, emotion, special skills. Obviously, any of
these influences may be unequally present in the composite. In-
telligence is apparently the most important single factor in these
performances, but item success also involves experience, judg-
ment, initiative, persistence, aptitude, resourcefulness, and
similar factors as holistic utilization. Certainly this scale is not
a direct measure of intelligence, skill, personality, or the like,
but only of their conative capitalization for social effectiveness.
10. The items are assumed to reflect the correlative exploi-
tation of individual aptitudes and experiences as reflected in
more or less universal settings, that is, as not overweighted by
economic status, formal education, race, nationality, religion,
convention, or what might in general be considered cultural
stimulation or restraint. Rather, the items are intended to
represent that "inner urge" toward independent self-expression
which results in the selective consolidation of discriminated
experience. This urge is expressed as eagerness to shift for one-
self, to manage one's own affairs, to dominate the environment
and to take one's place as a responsible member of the social
group. However, this does not deny the likelihood of specific
environmental influence. On the contrary, as repeatedly stated,
the Scale affords a means for the systematic appraisal of such
influence. Our aim here is to avoid exceptional modes of be-
havior in a given milieu.
58 Item Criteria
Pertinent evidence regarding the nature-nurture determinants
of social behavior is found in primitive environments where
cultural modes may specifically circumscribe social expression.
Obviously both the form and the degree of social evolution
will be influenced by the social scene, but will be relatively
constant for a given segment of it. It remains to deter-
mine experimentally how broad this segmentation may be and
yet permit such a scale as this to be used without cultural
modification. Gross differences in the total environment will
require the use of specialized adaptations of this scale which
may then be employed as comparative measures of dissimilar
cultures. Hence it may prove desirable to use a number of
representative scales for such gross cultural differences. Such
alternative scales thereby become measures of cultural dif-
ferences.
11. The significance of retarded or arrested social matura-
tion as seen among the feeble-minded is a further consideration.
Here the genetic potential, limited either by endowment or
modified by accidents of development, seriously restricts the
normal evolution of social behavior. The relatively fixed limits
of arrested development reveal the innate character of behavior-
al evolution as significantly immune to environmental persua-
sion. The expressive behavior associated with arrested mental
development seems neither greatly enhanced by aggressive
stimulation, nor utterly inhibited by protective restraint. And
the social criterion of feeble-mindedness is the diagnostic point
of departure.
Studies on the amelioration of mental deficiency have pro-
duced more controversy than agreement. The techniques of
operative maneuvers, chemotherapy, physical therapy, environ-
mental enrichment, and progressive educational methods have
been generally unconvincing. At best these studies reveal im-
proved expression of constitutionally limited aptitudes without
alteration of their organic bases. Or they suggest release from
the inhibitions to expression imposed by various orthopsychiat-
ric conditions or physical handicaps.
Confidence in such amelioration is weakened by imperfect
diagnosis and the suspicion of adventitious auras. Or the
amounts of such benefits may be small or not permanently
sustained. Some of the studies reveal delayed development
without aid of special overtures, or perhaps during rather than
because of treatment. The design of such investigations has not
usually satisfied the requirements of complete symptom-complex
diagnosis, including etiology, grade, type and extra-therapeutic
prognosis. In short, the results from IQ-determined mental
deficiency do not necessarily apply to clinical feeble-mindedness.
Item Formulation 59
And improvement is psychometric scores does not ipso facto
constitute diagnostic alterations.
Item for^mulation. Each item is initially set forth in a con-
cise phrase or caption which is intended to convey a self-evident
meaning. But these captions require expanded formulation to
clarify and delimit their implications. We have met this prob-
lem by a brief elaboration of each item as a definitional guide to
its meaning. Each item is defined in such a manner as to
facilitate specific judgments rather than to prove unequivocally
applicable to all persons and all occasions. Meticulously elab-
orated definitions are inadvisable as well as impractical, since
it is almost impossible to envisage all the minor conditions that
would have to be met in every case or any situation. Hence the
definitions are phrased thematically rather than crucially.
We are reminded of the solicitous parent who, desiring to
prepare his red-haired son for the inevitable taunts of his
playmates, affectionately dubbed him "Red-head," "Brick-top,"
"Sorrel," and such, only to find his son involved in a fight on his
first day at school because someone had called him "Rusty," an
expression that fell outside the father's anticipation. So we
have experienced an extraordinary number of equivalent situa-
tions which satisfy the essential requirements of each item,
but do so in such a variety of forms as to make impossible an
exhaustive description of their details, or even the completely
satisfactory use of illustrative examples. We have therefore
been forced to limit the definitions deliberately to such general
terms as will make the meaning clear and will satisfy the gen-
eral rather than the specific occasion. This embarrassment is
mitigated by the ample use of illustrative examinations (Chap-
ter 8) which offer illuminating examples of item scoring in
their associated setting. However, the examiner is specifically
warned not to rely too much on these examples, but rather to
consider them as suggestive of the kind of situation which is
likely to be encountered in respect to which he must exercise
his own judgment in each particular instance.
One immediately encounters differences of more-or-less
and of better-or-worse in the evaluation of these performances.
How long must these have been performed to be considered
customary, routine or habitual? How "rich" should they be in
duration, amount, variety or extent to receive credit? What
allowances are to be made for obvious environmental influences
such as social pressure, solicitude or freedom? How evident
is the need, occasion or opportunity for the subject to exercise
the activities in question? What encouragement, direction,
60 Item Criteria
teaching, supervision, or their lack has the subject encountered?
How exacting shall the standards be with due regard for varia-
tion in time, place and circumstances? What are the limits of
£uch qualifying expressions as ordinarily, acceptably, usually,
occasionally? How does the examiner "exercise discretion"?
How literally are such words and phrases to be understood?
These and similar questions will at first disturb those who
undertake to apply this scale. The initial obviousness of the
item captions will give way to skepticism or doubt as their
elaborated formulations are considered with earnest candor.
This in turn gives rise to an ultimate impression of impractica-
bility of scoring.
The problem of definition is an embarrassment to all science.
We observe that it is a warm day, and there is not much doubt
about it until we read the thermometer. Then we find that our
impression of warmth is modified by humidity, air currents,
amount of clothing, time of day, degree of activity, season, and
the like. A warm day in winter would be a cold one in summer.
A warm day in between two cooler days is psychologically
warmer than one between two hotter days. Altitude makes a
difference, as does one's mental or physical state at the time.
A day too warm for office work may be cool enough for tennis ;
one cool enough for hiking may be too cool for sailing. We
re-examine the (ordinary) thermometer. We thought it was
a reasonably accurate instrument; but it is not so accurate as
a clinical thermometer, nor so sensitive as the delicate thermo-
piles of the physics laboratory. We find it is difficult to estimate
temperature v»dthout regard to altitude, barometric pressure,
humidity and other related variables. Nevertheless, we return
to the original conclusion, that it is a warm day, and this gen-
eral observation is agreed to by those present with due regard
for the degree of accuracy warranted by the circumstances.
It is this question of circumstances, then, that governs the
crudity or the refinement of the measurement for the purpose
in hand. It becomes important to effect a compromise between
that degree of crudity which allows too wide a margin of error
of observation and judgment on the one hand, and that degree
of refinement which makes such observation and judgment im-
practicable on the other.
The principle employed in formulating the definitions of
items was therefore a compromise between too little and too
much refinement. Enough detail has been formulated to clarify
the meaning of each item beyond serious uncertainty and yet
allow for flexibility of interpretation within a practicable mar-
gin of consistency on repetitive emplojmient. Such minimum
Item Formulation 61
definition is designed to circumscribe the interpretation of the
performance within explanatory limits which would leave
relatively little doubt for inclusion or exclusion of all but
marginal or extraordinary instances. On the other hand, we
have deliberately avoided over-refinement of definition for the
simple reason that as a definition becomes more and more
meticulously explicit its application becomes correspondingly
impracticable. Minute differences become relatively more
rather than less apparent ; as one approaches perfection imper-
fection becomes more obvious.
Precision of definition is also a function of the practica-
bility of standardization, since the Scale is composed of items
v/hich rather clearly emerge in a genetic sequence of behavioral
development. Item definition is also related to the criteria of
use and reliability. These functional criteria, if adequately
satisfied, outweigh a priori quibbling. Equivocal scoring stan-
dards will be reflected in poor item standardization, in low
reliability on test-retest performance, and in impracticability
for comparative application.
We have, in fact, experimented with various degrees of
definition and have touched those extremes where too little or
too much meticulousness are equally disturbing. This experi-
ence clearly indicated the impossibility of defining any item
beyond cavil while still satisfying the severe requirements of
standardization, reliability and validity.
This is not to say that precision is not desirable, but only
that with high-power magnification perspective and relationship
are lost. We view an object. From a distance it is only "some
thing," As we near it we observe that it resembles a piece of
furniture. On closer view we observe that it appears to be a
desk. Its "deskness" is now its important feature. We are not
so much concerned (although we might be able to judge)
w^hether or not it might be most useful for library, office, study
or parlor. We are not even so much concerned whether it is
oak, mahogony, walnut or steel, nor v/hat might be the relation
of the material to the desk's use.
Coming still closer we lose the deskness of the object, since
now viewing but one end, we see only an expanse of material.
Coming still closer this becomes a kind of wall. Applying
microscopic vision we observe its cellular constitution. We
may in this way determine its material composition.
The point here is that if we are interested merely to classify
this object as a piece of furniture, there is a range of dis-
tance within which ordinary vision is adequate for this purpose.
62 Item Criteria
From too far a distance we cannot determine the deskness ot
the object, and at too close a range we lose this judgment.
Nevertheless, there is no denying that a careful definition of
what constitutes a desk might be of assistance, especially to one
who has never seen or heard of a desk, or if one wished to
distinguish between a desk and a work table of like purpose.
In the Binet scale we ask the child "What is a chair?". If
he says "It is to sit on," we accept this answer for certain
purposes, although quite obviously many objects can be sat upon
without being chairs, such as a hassock, a sofa, a box, or even
the floor or the ground. Or he may say "A chair is a piece of
furniture upon which one sits." This is more satisfying, but
hardly more explicit, since the other objects just mentioned,
except the last two, might be considered furniture. If he says
"It is something to sit upon which has four legs and a back,"
this is better, but still not exclusively definitive. Does the
reader know what a chair is? Can he define it within limits
which would be adequate? Can he define it with that degree
of exactitude which would preclude all other objects from this
category? And if he can do this, how desirable is such refine-
ment for inventory purposes?
The examiner employing this social scale is entitled to that
minimum of definition which will clarify the meaning of each
item beyond serious doubt even though not satisfying all con-
tingencies. Elaboration is necessary in order that the examiner
may comprehend the intent of the definition under variable
conditions of interpretation rather than its exact delimitations
in all instances without exercising any judgment of his own.
In adopting the former alternative we have deliberately left
some choice to the examiner.
This conclusion may prove disturbing to the formal psy-
chometric psychologist. The standardized mental test puts a
premium upon uniformity of test administration and scoring.
Those who are well drilled in psychometric work will therefore
be habituated to a type of examining which calls for little or no
judgment on their part. But this appearance of exactness is not
a psychological reality. Words do not convey the same meanings
to all people. Variations in vocal clarity or inflection, and in the
"engagingness" of presentation, supplemented by the examiner's
conscious or unconscious gestures, produce variations in the
examination which are appreciably variable (the error of
the "personal equation of the examiner"). And in the response,
the examiner must judge to what extent the subject is able to
verbalize his thought or convey his meaning within the variable
use of diction. The attempt of psychometric work to force the
examination into inflexible presentation and rigid scoring ac-
complishes only an approximation to desirable precision. (Wit-
ness the fruitless attempts to score a copied square as just plus
Practicability of Items 63
or just minus, and the still more fruitless efforts to assign
discriminative values to different degrees of success.) Its con-
sequence is to stultify the psychological aspect of psychometry
by reducing it to a mechanical routine.
We have discussed this matter at this length because im-
mediate objections to this scale derive from the apparent lack of
precision in the definition of items. To those who will evaluate
the Scale by logical criticism rather than by experimentation, it
will immediately appear that the Scale cannot "work" because
the item formulations are too vague. The answer is to be found
in the experimental evidence. If the objection held, it would
obviously be impossible to standardize the items Mith sufficient
approximation to stable accuracy. And if the item formulations
yielded unstable judgments, then there would be a low degree
of reliability on repeated examining. But if the definitions are
sufficiently exact for practical purposes, then this will be re-
vealed in the stability of the standardization and in the con-
stancy of results obtained on re-examination, whether by the
same examiner or by different examiners. That these require-
ments are satisfied is evident from the experimental evidence.
Practicability of items. Since the standard method of ad-
ministering the Scale requires that information regarding the
S (subject examined) be obtained from someone familiar with
his capabilities, it is necessary that such information be not too
difficult to obtain. Hence the questions asked must not be so
intimate as to disturb the informant. The information sought
should be sufficiently evident and proper so that an informant
well acquainted with the S need not experience too much con-
cern for supplying an adequate factual report. Still further,
the information sought should not be such as might reflect un-
duly upon the character of the S or seem to disparage his attain-
ments. In short the items must be discreetly conceived and
considerately phrased in order to avoid embarrassment for all
concerned.
We repeat that there is an ethical aspect to the examina-
tion which requires the examiner to be socially tactful as well
as objective. He is not at liberty to seek or to purvey prurient
information having to do with the personal affairs of the S un-
related to his social maturity as such. It should be unnecessary
to warn examiners that most people are sensitive, not to say
defensive, about nearly any kind of examination which might
reveal their ability at a lesser level than they would like to have
it assumed. Each of us tends to put up a bold front toward the
64 Item Criteria
world, and we are more or less constantly on guard about having
our real aptitudes exposed to measurement. In using this
scale there is definite risk of appearing to pry into the private
affairs of the S by seeking surreptitious information from the
informant. Such impertinence is properly resented by both
informant and S and might discredit the examiner or bring the
use of the Scale into disrepute.
Therefore the use of items which involve the conduct of the
S in the sense of "good" or "bad" behavior is deprecated as
well as questions bearing on the morality or character of the
individual except as these directly influence the expression of
social competence. Careful consideration of this question has
led us to the conclusion that moral conduct represents person-
ality variables within various levels of maturity rather than
levels of maturity as such. However, we may not ignore those
details of conduct which do, in fact, affect social competence.
Item scoring in relation to placement. Many doubts regard-
ing item interpretation may be resolved by considering
items with reference to their relative positions in the Scale. This
is specially evident within the categorical sequences since
each item depends more or less on those which serially
precede or follow it. But this hint must not be pursued
too far, as we should then be reasoning in a circle. The
items are to be scored as strictly as possible on the basis
of the performances as defined. Thus, we cannot say that
"gets a drink unassisted" requires performing this as a
child between one and two years of age would perform
it, since the position of the item must be first determined in
terms of the definition rather than the definition determined by
the placement. Such reciprocal relation between definition and
placement has been stabilized through experimental standard-
ization. The examiner is therefore encouraged to adhere to the
definition, but to be guided in general by its placement on the
assumption that the placement as determined by the original
construction of the Scale is a better guide than the examiner's
independent opinion as to such placement.
In presenting the detailed item formulations (Chapter 6)
the order of presentation follows the categorical arrangement
of items, rather than the numerical sequences of age place-
ment. This simplifies interpretation for scoring as well as for
administration. The numerical sequences are followed within
the categories to facilitate reference. These numerical se-
quences might have been re-grouped within the categories to
Habitual Performance 65
indicate the progressive extensions of essentially similar per-
formances, but to avoid confusion these relations are noted inci-
dentally and summarized in the general discussion.
This plan encourages the grouping of closely related items
in examining, recording, and scoring, and thereby simplifies
item interpretation. However, care must be taken to avoid scor-
ing any item on the basis of its inferential relation to some
other item rather than on its own merits. The integrity of the
Scale as a whole is not to be ignored, and internal coherence
will simplify many apparent difficulties. The Scale can hardly
be permitted to "lift itself by its own bootstraps." Perspective
clarifies but does not determine item details.
Habitual performance. The examiner will at first be some-
what troubled by the apparent indefiniteness of the temporal
criterion of "habitual" performance. This varies all the way
from an obvious "never" to an equally obvious "always" or
"without exception." Between these extremes many doubtful
instances occur. "Customarily" perhaps serves better than
"habitually" to allay these misgivings ; indeed habitually is used
here in the sense of "when circumstances require, make desira-
ble, or warrant" the performance in question. Bearing in
mind that the Scale assumes personal initiative and creative
dominance as one aspect of item maturation, we must neverthe-
less reckon with the nature of the occasions which call forth
such expression. Occasional performance usually precedes
habitual performance as emergent success.
We therefore define habitual in the sense that usually or
nearly always (and allowing for minor mitigating circum-
stances) the item in question is performed without undue pres-
sure as need or occasion makes desirable. This "equal to the
occasion" concept may mean continuously, or several times a
day, or once a week, or even once in several years according to
the nature of the task in question. In other words the item may
be called for intermittently, but when called for its successful
performance is habitually (substantially always) forthcoming.
One must reckon with reduced social competence when the
habitual (accustomed) manner of item performance is inter-
fered with. A different way of doing, a varied time for
performance, enforced delay or inhibition in expression, or
exceptional obstacles to such behavior may so disturb the
marginally adequate individual as to seriously disrupt his self-
reliance. The flexible personality readjusts quickly to these de-
66 Item Criteria
mands ; the slave to rigid habit may be significantly frustrated.
For example: Taking a bath as an accustomed and inde-
pendently exercised activity may situationally occur (a) more
than once a day, (b) daily, (c) weekly on a stated day, (d)
with other regular periodicity, or (e) at irregular intervals as
opportunity affords. Whatever the temporal occasion, the com-
petent individual routinely does so on his own. But we have
known a feeble-minded girl whose failure on an otherwise
successful parole placement was due to change in bathing habit.
Although quite capable of bathing herself this had been rou-
tinely supervised at the institution as an administrative pro-
tection against scalding. Her new situation required that she
bathe herself. There was also a change from shower to tub, and
from the regularity of Thursday evening to the novelty of
Saturday night. These altered circumstances left her confused
and helpless. This girl's employer could not understand the
girl's apparent unwillingness- Here formerly habitual success
was upset by circumstances where initiative rather than rou-
tine were determining requirements.
Habitual performance beyond marginal limits of compe-
tence is not so readily upset. The adequately mature person
adapts his behavioral expression resourcefully, and quickly ac-
commodates to situational differences. But losses in previously
habitual behavior may result from changes in age, health, social
circumstances and the like which require special scoring. These
exigencies are provided for in the specific technioues of scoring
(Chapter 7).
6
Item Specification
Continuity is perhaps the most significant characteristic of
growth; it implies both a past and a future. In childhood —
and for that matter, throughout life — each "level" emerges
gradually out of that which has just passed and merges almost
imperceptibly toward that which is about to be. Nor is maturity
itself a static ideal; rather, it is a progressive adjustment
between the individual and the demands of life. This in turn
gives to maturity a quality of dependableness.
— Ruth Brickner
Orientation. Successful technical use of this scale requires
that the examiner be intimately familiar with the basic prin-
ciples underlying its construction, and particularly with the
general and specific instructions which govern its administra-
tion. The formulation of items cannot be divorced from these
overall considerations. The student is cautioned not to rely
solely on the clarifying material of this chapter, but should re-
late these details to the method as a whole. This requires con-
scientiousness, adaptive judgment and experience.
The item specifications are therefore an interpretative
guide to item-scoring. They are designed to make the general
instructions specifically applicable. They have been phrased to
forestall diflficulties of interpretation, to facilitate rather than to
delimit scoring. The examiner must sometimes resort to ap-
parently arbitrary decisions, but such judgments will usually
reflect sub-articulate rationalizations which are likely to be
sound rather than capricious.
It is, of course, desirable that these definitions be relatively
ii'ee from need for further authoritative interpretations of im-
plicit meaning. We may say with the confidence gained from
fifteen years of experience on the part of many examiners using
the Scale in widely different circumstances that satisfactory
scoring can be performed with surprisingly little difficulty.
This is facilitated by relating the specific item definitions to the
general instructions and to the principles underlying the method
as a whole.
The intent of each item is basic to its definitional formula-
tion. This is first indicated in the general assumptions of the
method. It is further implied by (a) the grouping of items as
consecutive stages of similar behavior, (b) the abridged item
68 Item Specification
captions, (c) the maturation curves and mean year-values for
each item, as well as (d) the definitive requirements of item
performances.
The categorical grouping of items materially facilitates the
technique of examining as well as scoring. Each category re-
presents a different phase of social competence and each item a
particular stage of its maturational extension. The central
theme of each item requires self-sufficiency, social independence,
social responsibility or social participation. This is most readily
conceived as some form of self-direction in the broad sense. The
specific mode whereby this central theme is expressed, or the
behavioral form of self-direction, is particularized within
several types of social activity. These behavioral categories are
not all-inclusive, but only representative, and their several de-
grees (the items themselves) are only some of the significant
stages which can be clearly differentiated.
Each item is presumed to reveal social competence as well
as social maturation (p. 56). Some items reflect a maturational
anticipation of later competence, that is, the item may be a
behavioral preliminary to ultimate adequacy. This is indi-
cated in the comm.ent which follows each item definition. In
later revisions or extensions of the Scale the categories and the
specific items might be altered, contracted, expanded, fraction-
ated or rearranged.
The item captions are condensed cues to item, meanings.
They should not he relied upon to replace item formulations
hut only to keynote their intent. The examiner must resist the
temptation to interview the informant by use of direct or leading
questions based on item captions. Non-committal lead-questions
related to a category as a whole and building up toward item
particulars should preferably be employed (Chapters 7, 8).
A general requirement of discretion as an element of suc-
cessful performance pervades all items and is an implicit
requirement for assigning item scores. We are reminded of a
parole officer's report which told all in the laconic phrase, "No
hits, no runs, no errors." As the S "goes to bat" on a given form
of behavior he runs the risk of danger to himself or to his sur-
roundings. Successful performance therefore requires that in
spite of these risks the S does not get into trouble, or injure
himself or others, or damage the material environment, or
otherwise compromise himself, his guardians or associates.
The examiner may find it specially difficult to score those per-
formances which are successfully achieved by unfair exploita-
tion or by heedless disregard for the rights of others.
Orientation 69
This discretional aspect of item scoring is noted casually
for some items and explicitly for others, but it is implicit for
all. Its observance is of cardinal importance for it reflects the
central factor "loading" of self-direction which is in greater or
less degree common to all items. The frequent notation "and
does not get into trouble in so doing" is a reminder of these
implications.
For some S's, discretion or its lack materially influences
the total score as an indication of special asset or handicap. Or
this may be significantly evident for a single category of items.
Recognition of these idiosyncrasies is helpful in the specific
evaluation of results. Marked indiscretions (waywardness,
impulsiveness, untrustworthiness, misconduct) call for double-
scoring as an aid to clinical interpretation (p. 292).
A particular consequence of indiscreet performance is the
resulting imposition of restraints to behavior by parents,
guardians, elders or superior authorities. It may be that the S
is not permitted the opportunity to express himself in certain
ways because when so doing he gets into trouble or seems likely
to do so. Such apparently justifiable limitation to behavior may
be regarded as "no opportunity" situations of special signifi-
cance; +N0 scores (p. 284) should not be employed in scoring
them, especially in the case of feeble-minded, delinquent and
other socially irresponsible subjects.
The discussion for each item follows a general pattern.
Each category is presented v/ith overall introductory comment.
This is followed by a specification of items within the category
in their progressive order of difficulty. Each item number is
followed (in parentheses) by its mean total life age standard-
ization norm and then by the item caption. Interpretative
sketches illustrate the central themes for about half of the items.
Ogives of item success (item maturation curves) also accom-
pany each item showing (a) normative sex comparisons by
life-age progression, and (b) normative total LA progression
compared with feeble-minded total SA progression. Sex dif-
ferences for feeble-minded subjects are omitted except for
incidental comment when specifically relevant.
The item exposition further includes: (a) introductory
comment, (b) standard definition, (c) normative LA standard-
ization comment, (d) feeble-minded SA validation comment,
(e) general comment. References to the normative data derive
from the population sample of normal subjects employed in the
experimental standardization (Chapter 9) arranged by life
70 Item Specification
age. References to feeble-minded validation data apply to the
item analysis sample of mentally deficient subjects employed
for this purpose (Chapter 10) arranged by social age. All data
references in this chapter are specifically delimited to these
samples except as specifically noted. Data from other samples
are discussed in later chapters. The systematic derivation of
data is presented in Chapters 9 and 10 to which the reader is
referred for elaboration of the summary data offered in this
chapter.
For simplicity of expression certain conventional abbrevi-
ations are used as follows: S for the subject (examinee) of
the examination (not to be confused with the informant) ; LA
for life age (sometimes termed calendar age or chronological
age) ; SA for social age (converted total scale score) ; SQ for
social quotient (SA divided by LA times 100) ; Q for quartile
deviation (one half the interquartile range of the distribution
of a sample) ; SD for standard deviation (sigma of the distri-
bution of a sample) ; SE for standard error (sigma of the
mean) ; CR for critical ratio (the statistical reliability of the
difference between means). SA year-intervals are noted by
Roman numerals; SA scores by Arabic numbers. N refers
sometimes to number of S's and sometimes to normative S's,
according to context, FM refers to feeble-minded S's ; M - F
to male versus female S's.
The reader is particularly warned against misinterpreta-
tion of comment on normal versus feeble-minded differences,
especially when feeble-minded item performance appears to be
superior to normative performance. The normative data are
arranged by LA disregarding SA ; the feeble-minded validation
data are arranged by SA disregarding LA. Since the item mean
SA's for feeble-minded subjects approximate the item mean
LA's for normal subjects at all LA intervals (Chapter 10), the
normative LA data are equivalently comparable to the feeble-
minded SA data. However, the feeble-minded subjects always
have the advantage of more advanced life ages than the normal
subjects. The mean LA's for feeble-minded subjects range
from 14 years at SA 1-2, to 30 years at SA 10-11, falling typi-
cally between 15 and 25 years (Table 8, p. 397). This influence
of chronological maturity sometimes, but by no means always,
gives the feeble-minded subjects an advantage on some items
because of prolonged experience.
The differences, then, between normal and feeble-minded
subjects never reveal genuine maturational precocity of feeble-
Item Graphs 71
mindedness versus normality, but only sometimes a relative
superiority because of the advantage of more advanced life
age. Such superiority is evident for only some items and some
categories.
For other items and categories the specific handicaps to
social competence produced by and reflected in the feeble-
mindedness more than offset the advantage of advanced age.
Yet in addition to the greater experience accruing from in-
creased age, these subjects have the environmental assets of
generally favorable home and institutional stimulation.
The reader must guard throughout against confusion of
ordinal versus cardinal numbers. The first year of life repre-
sents life age from birth to the end of the first year, or LA 0 to
0.99, which becomes by approximation and conventional desig-
nation LA 0-1. Likewise the second year is 1 - 2, the third 2-3,
and so on. Hence the ordinal designation is always one interval
above the cardinal unit.
Other general precautions are incorporated in the com-
ments on item scoring and interpretation where they seem most
pertinent, or where they first bear directly on a particular item
in the order of the categorical presentation. An early example
is found on page 88 in the comment following Item 35 (Asks to
go to toilet). It is to be assumed that serious students of the
method will generalize the comments from all the item specifi-
cations as highlighting the Scale as a whole.
Item graphs. The exposition of each item includes matura-
tion curves constructed from the original item data. These,
with their derived calculations, constitute a definite contribu-
tion to normative genetic psychology as well as to the differen-
tial psychology of mental deficiency. They also present the raw
data from which other calculations on this scale as a whole are
derived. In view of the importance of these data the reader
may wish to note the following observations :
1. The item graphs are presented in dual pairs with (a) the
normative standardization by sex to the left, and (b) the total
normative standardization by life age with comparative valida-
tion for the total feeble-minded subjects (item analysis sample)
by social age to the right. To simplify presentation the graphs
are discontinuous at the "tails" which represent at the left
continuous zero-percentiles of passes and at the right continuous
100-percentile of passes (to Item 101 ) . The continuity in both
of these directions was established in the original data but has
72 Item Specification
been omitted on the graphs except as the partial tails suggest
such continuity.
2. The theoretical zero for all items for normal subjects is
at LA 0.0, that is, the time of birth. Theoretically no item of this
scale would be passed, and for these data no item actually is
passed, immediately following birth. (Out of our 20 normal
subjects at LA 0-1 no S's among two boys and two girls who
were under two months of age passed any items of the Scale.)
This does not deny maturational behavior on the part of the
foetus or the newborn infant, but this scale is not concerned
with such behavior. The first plot of neonate behavior would
therefore be at the actual zero of postnatal maturation. This
point is not represented on these item graphs since the entire
first year of life is represented in our data at the midpoint of
that year, namely mean LA 0.5. Consequently the graphs are
not projected back to the maturational zero point since that
point is included in the year-group which represents the first
year of life.
3. With respect to the feeble-minded subjects this argument
would presumably obtain for LA but not for SA. At SA 0-1
all our feeble-minded subjects (whose LA's exceed their SA's)
pass at least one item of the Scale. Yet we have seen some
vegetative idiots and also some cataleptics so helpless as not to
pass a single item of this scale. Among our feeble-minded S's
the lowest score was SA .41 (LA 13.4, SQ 3), the lowest LA
was 5.6 (SA 1-6, SQ 28), and the lowest SQ was 2 (LA 35, SA
.53) . The least number of items passed by any of these subjects
was 7 (SA .41). Consequently none were at the maturational
zero point of the Scale, although as noted this is not only pos-
sible but actually occurs. Here again the zero point for each
item is projected from the mid-point of SA 0-1 (SA 0.5) rather
than from absolute zero.
4. The data for feeble-minded subjects by sex are omitted,
but the general observation may be made that sex differences
were not significantly apparent. Summary information on sex
differences for the feeble-minded item validation group is con-
tained in subsequent tables (Chapter 10).
5. In general the feeble-minded subjects were approxi-
mately fifteen years older in life age than the normative subjects
at most LA-SA comparisons. This in itself is one indication of
the influence of life age on item performance. Consequently
where the performance of the feeble-minded subjects by SA is
advanced in comparison to the normative subjects by LA the
Item Graphs 73
difference is to be attributed to the LA differences between the
two groups, in respect to which the feeble-minded subjects have
the advantage of life age but not of actually superior com-
petence in terms of LA itself.
6. The item graphs for the feeble-minded subjects are based
on an "Item Analysis Group" (Chapter 10). They are discon-
tinuous beyond SA 11-12 because of lack of sufficient available
S's thereafter. The item analysis group was composed of ten
male and ten female subjects at each SA to correspond to the
normative LA groups. Although our total feeble-minded popu-
lation (see Chapter 11) included some subjects from SA's
12-17 inclusive the number of these at each SA was not suffi-
cient to permit adequate calculation either by sex or by totals.
The reader is advised that because the item gi-aphs are restrict-
ed by this limitation of sampling he should not infer that SA
11-12 is the upper limit of SA for all feeble-minded subjects.
This limitation of subjects does not permit the projection of
these item graphs for the feeble-minded subjects beyond SA
11-12. Ultimately stable 100 per cent of passes are evident for
all items below Item 76. The fragmentary data beyond SA
11-12 for Items 76 to 89 inclusive are incorporated in the item
comments. Beyond Item 89 the fragmentary data do not reach
100 per cent of passes at any SA.
7. The item graphs accompany the categorical exposition of
item definitions and follow the order of progressive difficulty
of the items within categories. To locate particular item graphs
the reader may consult the index where the items are listed in
alphabetical order of item captions without reference to cate-
gorical segregation.
8. Below each graph is a brief summary of the data (see
Chapters 9 and 10). The abbreviations for these data not al-
ready noted (p. 70) are: M for male (normative S's) ; F for
female (normative S's) ; N for normal (total normative S's,
sexes combined) ; FM for feeble-minded (total validation S's,
sexes combined) ; Med. for median (LA for normative S's or
SA for feeble-minded S's) ; and D for difference between means
(M-F and N-FM). The mean differences with minus signs
indicate at the left hand (M-F) normative LA sex differences
in favor of the male S's, and at the right hand (N-FM) LA total
normative versus SA total feeble-minded differences in favor of
the normul S's (the higher means indicating later maturation).
Similarly, the M-F mean differences without minus sign^s favor
the normative female S's, while the N-FM mean differences
74 Item Specification
without minus signs favor the feeble-minded S's. SD's are
not calculable for those item means which are derived from
curves which include only one significant point between 0 and
100 per cent. In such instances the corresponding CR is also
lacking (Chapter 9). For those curves which begin at 100
per cent the mean is 0 and the corresponding SD is 0 (see foot-
note p. 77).
9. Some of the statistical trends for the normative subjects
are unconventionally derived for items above 101 (cf. pp. 361-
363). The nature of these derivations is indicated in the text
accompanying the item definitions or in the comments below
the graphs. These derivations have regard for the items which
do not ultimately achieve 100 per cent of passes before LA 25
years. Following Item 101 no item attains 100 per cent of passes
except Item 103 (which after LA 25 years fluctuates between
90 and 100 per cent of passes). Consequently the order of
progressive difficulty for these items has been determined by
the total sums of per cent passing (see page 362) rather than
by median age or mean age values, which cannot suitably be
calculated from such incomplete data.
10. A similar situation obtains for the total feeble-minded
subjects for items between Items 76-89 inclusive. Certain of
these items do not reach 100 per cent of passes for these feeble-
minded subjects and others do not reach 50 per cent of passes.
For Items 90-99 inclusive the feeble-minded subjects do not
exceed 5 per cent of passes on three items (Items 90, 96, 97) ; do
not exceed 2.5 per cent of passes on two items (Items 94, 98) ;
and do not exceed zero per cent of passes on all other items of
the Scale thereafter. Consequently the graphs for feeble-minded
subjects are omitted beyond Item 89. The graphs for total
normative subjects are also omitted beyond Item 89 since the
comparisons with feeble-minded subjects are either irrelevant
or impossible and because the graphs for total normative sub-
jects represent only the mid-points of the normative graphs by
sex which can readily be observed either by inspection or calcu-
lation from the normative graphs by sex.
11. Most of the item curves have almost startling regularity
and pitch. However, some items show marked irregularities
with relatively wide spread- Some of these irregularities
are probably attributable to the limited number of subjects at
each LA, especially when these are segregated by sex. The
items which show v/ide spread or marked irregularities have
correspondingly less discriminative value. (The item curves
Self-Help Categories 75
might appear more impressive if presented as Gk)mpertz curves,
but such presentation would have obscured the raw data and
might have yielded inferences not warranted by the face value
of the data.)
12. On most items there is a noteworthy absence of signifi-
cant sex differences. Some specific items, especially in the adult
range, reveal sex differences which may be attributable to arti-
facts of scoring or of occupational pursuits. Careful analysis
of these items has revealed no serious obstacles to retaining
them since they produced no seriously disturbing influence in
the Scale as a whole, because of compensating sex influences.
SELF - HELP CATEGORIES
The most obvious evidence of social maturation from early
infancy to adolescence is in self-help. Three divisions of this
category are evident, (a) general activities, (b) eating, and (c)
dressing (including cleansing). The major considerations in
these items are the manner and degree to which the individual
attends to his immediate personal wants. Some of these per-
formances anticipate other activities of wider significance with-
out constituting specific preliminary stages of those activities.
Self-Help
General
The parent whose wisdom is compounded of intelligence and
emotional control will sense, without the aid of a textbook,
the moment at which he can say to himself, "Hands off]"
— Lillian Symes
It should be noted that although balancing the head,
grasping, rolling over, reaching, sitting, standing, and the like,
are in a sense preliminary stages of locomotion, we prefer to
consider them independently in this category of Self-Help Gen-
eral (SHG) since they are common to a wide variety of tasks
and do not lend themselves to ready classification in the other
categories.
The 14 SHG items extend from SA 0 to SA VII. All but two
appear before SA III (8 at O, 2 at I, 2 at II, 1 at IV, and 1 at
VII). Hence this category is specially applicable to normal
infants and to idiot-grade feeble-minded. A series of items
preliminary to walking is apparent in Items 2, 5, 8, 9, and 15.
76
Item Specification
Items 3, 6, 13 and 23 reveal manipulation. Items 35 and 51 indi-
cate toilet reliance. Item 26 might be considered as locomotion,
Item 41 as self -direction, and Item 66 as communication. Such
serial orders may be employed as examining sequences according
to expediency.
Item 2. (LA .25) Balances head.
If the S raises and vol-
untarily supports his head, it
does not need to be raised or
supported for him. This capa-
bility is essential to many
other socially significant ac-
tivities. This is not to say that
balancing the head is the first
significant form of human
behavior, but only that it is
an early indication of person-
al independence. Students of infant development will appreciate
that this is a relatively advanced form of activity, which in this
scale is preceded by crowing and laughing, which in turn have
other antecedents not included as such in this scale.
To satisfy this item, the S spontaneously balances his head continu-
ously (about at least one minute) and at fairly frequent intervals as occa-
sion warrants. The S may be held in the erect posture, but the head should
be free to move independently of support. Or the S may raise (and hold)
his head erect from prone or supine positions, perhaps with shoulders
raised. We are not concerned with the psychomotor details, but rather with
th« fact that the S needs no longer to have his head balanced for him.
Performance on this item may be limited by extreme ma-
turational mental or physical handicap, by serious mental or
physical deterioration, or by temporary conditions. Only the last
of these receives mitigating credit. Plus-minus credit may be
given if the item is passed occasionally but not usually. This
item might have been so defined as to require continuous balanc-
ing of the head (indefinitely longer than about a minute, or at
least for so long as the trunk or shoulders might be held erect) .
But this in turn would require continuous support of the trunk
or shoulders for definite or indefinite periods. Such a require-
ment would supplant this significant item by another as pre-
requisite. Moreover all activities are socially discontinuous ; that
ii, they occur intermittently. One does not walk all day, nor wash
one's face every hour, nor talk uninterruptedly. Hence the
Self-Help General
77
periodic nature of the performance must not be confused with
its customariness when called for (Chapter 7).
In the normative sample (Chapter 9) this item is passed by 80 per
cent of the boys and by 70 per cent of the girls in the first year of life,
and by all subjects thereafter. The mean M-F (normatve male-female)
difference is .10 years in favor of
the boys. The mean total norm is
.25 years.
Since there is only one sig-
nificant point on the curve betw^een
0 and 100 per cent a standard SD
(other than the SD of a percent-
age) cannot be calculated. Conse-
quently a standard CR cannot be
calculated. And this applies to all
such curves (Chapter 9).
In the validation sample (fee-
ble-minded subjects, Chapter 10)
this item is passed by all subjects
in all SA groups. The mean SA
norm is 0 years.* The mean N-FM
(normals by LA versus feeble-
mir.ded by SA) difference is .25
years in favor of the feeble-minded.
PLl
ion
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
S
M-
1
fm/
/
-F
An
1
i
-4—
Iten
1 2
Item 2
1
t-
1
2
3
4...
)
■ i
\
4...
LA (norms! by sex )m^ LA /normal tot) i
SA ( FM tot )
Mea.
Mean
M:
.13
.20
F:
.21
.30
D:
-.10
Item 2: Balances head
8D CR
Med.
Mean
N :
.17
.25
FM:
0
0
D :
.25
8D
CB
Item 3. (LA .30) Grasps objects within reach.
The infant at birth displays a reflex grasp of such strength
as to support his body weight. With increasing maturation in
voluntary attention and muscular control he will for brief mo-
ments hold objects placed in his hands. Later development of
prehensile movements enables him to pick up, take, and retain
small objects within arm's length. And still later he will extend
the area of grasping by extending his body length by rolling
over, creeping and other locomotor processes.
This item is considered passed if the S spontaneously or without
undue urging picks up, pulls, or takes simple objects within arm's length
and retains them for something more than a few seconds. He is not to be
*This norm is actually indefinite between SA 0 to .9 years. It signifies
that all S's at this interval and beyond passed the item. This applies
throughout the text and for graphs where the mean SA is given as 0 years.
78
Item Specification
penalized for lack of judgment as to when or what objects are taken, a
detail which is considered in later items (e.g., Item 41, Avoids simple
hazards). Opposition of thumb and finger as a more effective form of
grasping is also considered later (Item 13, Grasps with thumb and finger).
In the normative sample, this
item is passed by 70 per cent of
each sex in the first year of life
and by all subjects thereafter. The
mean M-F difference is 0. The
mean total norm is .30 years.
In the validation sample the
mean SA norm is .50 years, SD
.52. The mean N-FM difference is
.20 years in favor of the normal
S's.
%
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
JS
F-H
/
N-
/'
»♦ 1
i
L
J
^
FMj
/
I
'i
1
1
1
1
•
i
■ 1
Item 3
1
Item 3
0 1 2 3 4... ^ 1 2 3 4
LA (normal by sex) LA (normal tot.) ^
SA ( FM tot ) ^
Item 3: Orasps objects within reach.
Med. Bean SD CR Med. Mean 8D CR
M: .21 .30 - N : .21 .30
F: .21 .30 - FM: .41 .50 .52
D: 0 - D : -.20
We are not so much concerned here with method as with
result. If the S can reach and take objects, they need not be
handed him. This activity thus extends the S's social horizon and
makes him less dependent upon others to satisfy his wants or
needs. It also increases his environmental perils since the
objects taken may involve potential hazards in the form of
damage to him or to them. This discretionary aspect of reach-
and-grasp is considered under the category of locomotion with
due consideration of the risks involved in extended surround-
ings.
Note again that, as in all items, special circumstances may
limit performance as provided for in Chapter 7. Muscular inco-
ordination may be present as in birth palsy. Environmental
stimulation or its lack may be a factor. After taking an object
there may be difficulty in letting go, or "ungrasping." Such
performances are to be scored ad hoc with allowances made for
subsequent interpretation rather than for modified scoring. The
technique of double-scoring (p. 292) may be resorted to for spe-
cial purposes.
Self-Help General
79
Item 5. (LA .30) Rolls over.
The gross control of body movement progresses matura-
tionally from head to feet. This, broadly speaking, is revealed in
the voluntary exercise of neck, arms, trunk and legs in that
order. Our interest here is not, however, so much in body me-
chanics as in the increase in personal social effectiveness. If the
infant (or other S) rolls over, he does not have to be turned over
and this is another early evidence of personal independence.
Rolling over may also be viewed as a first stage of locomotion
which extends the physical environment and thereby the range
of social expression. It may thus become the motor means of
satisfying Item 12 (Moves about on floor), but is here consid-
ered as a general activity in self-help.
The item is considered passed if the S lying prone on a relatively
unobstructed surface rather frequently and voluntarily (or often and
purposively) maneuvers to supine positions, or vice versa, without
assistance. (The movement from ventral to dorsal positions is for most
S's more easily and frequently accomplished but is disregarded for sco'-ing
purposes. Likewise the manner of accomplishing: this feat while note-
worthy may be disregarded for scoring.)
The item is passed by 70 per
cent of the normative S's of each
sex in the first year of life and by
all subjects thereafter. The mean
IVt-F difference is 0. The mean
total norm is .30 years.
The item is passed by all
feeble-mfnded S's at SA 0-1 and
thence forward. The mean SA
norm is 0 years. The mean N-FM
difference is .30 years in favor of
the feeble-minded.
*
F-
/
i
L
1
Iten
t 5
0
i
*...
LA (normal by sex)^
PL
100
JS
FM
/
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
j
u
J
Iter
1 5
£
i
j
\
.A(
IA(
°%
alt
tot
ot)
. )
«...
Item 5: Rolls over.
Med.
Mean
BD
M:
.21
.30
-
F:
.21
.30
-
D:
0
CR
N :
FM:
D :
Med. Mean
.21 .30
0 0
^0
8D
CR
80
Item Specification
Since rolling from front to back is somewhat easier thaa
vice versa (because the prone position being less comfortable
"motivates" turning over, and this is better facilitated by the
use of the arms when prone) it might seem desirable to differen-
tiate these performances. But by accepting either rather than
both the scoring is simplified, for usually one act accompanies
the other or is acquired in close maturational sequence. When
combined for movement in a continuous direction, rather than
for alternating movement in a single locus, the performance be-
comes an early stage of locomotion and a forerunner of crawl-
ing or creeping. This aspect is taken account of in Item 12
(Moves about on floor).
Item 6. (LA .35) Reaches for nearby objects.
This item is an extension
of Item 3 (Grasps objects
within reach), usually com-
bined with Item 5 (Rolls
over) or other means of lo-
comotion. Here the activity of
the S is stimulated by the
desire to obtain an object be-
yon*? arm's length, and this requires some "displacement," such
as rolling over, "hunching," creeping, stepping, toward the
object. Logically, therefore, this performance includes some
elementary locomotion and correspondingly increases social
independence by enabling the S to obtain objects which would
otherwise have to be placed within arm's length.
Objects at a distance have a stimulating allure that prompts
desires to obtain them. This form of social exploration is less
vigorously displayed by feeble-minded S's and by normal S's
of passive personality.
The item is considered passed if the S attempts to obtain objects which
are nearby but beyond arm's length. The objects are assumed to be such as
would attract the S through familiarity, form, color, or other stimalns-
incentiye, and which are within compi>iratiTely easy access, say at a dis-
tance of about a few feet, more or less.
Self-Help General
81
The normative sample shows
the item passed by 70 per cent of
the boys and 60 per cent of the
girls at LA 0-1, and by all S's
thereafter. The mean M-F differ-
ence is .10 years in favor of the
boys. The mean total norm is .35
years.
The item is passed by 40 per
cent of feeble-minded S's at SA 0-1,
90 per cent at SA 1-2, and by all
S's thereafter. The mean total SA
norm is .70 years, SD .57. The
mean N-FM difference is .35 years
in favor of the normal S's.
2 3
LA (normal by sex)
0 1 2 3 ' 4,
LA (normal tot) ^i
SA i FM toi )
Item 6: Reaches for nearby objects.
Med.
Mean
M:
.21
.30
F:
.33
.40
D:
-.10
SD
CR
N
FM
D
Med. Mean
.27 .35
.70 .70
-.35
SD
.57
CR
ITEM 8. (LA .45) Sits unsupported.
This item is sequential to Item 2 (Balances head) by exten-
sion to voluntary control of sitting posture.
This item is passed by 60 per
cent of the boys and 50 per cent of
the girls at LA 0-1, and by all S's
thereafter. The mean M-F differ-
ence is .10 years in favor of the
boys. The mean total norm is .45
years.
This item is passed by all the
feeble-minded S's at SA 0-1 and
thereafter. The mean SA norm is 0
years. The mean N-FM difference
is .46 in favor of the feeble-minded.
*'
PLI
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
JS
T
FM
T
M-
/
'
1
«-N
I
-'
/
1
-F
I
Item 8
iter
n 8
a 1 2 3 4...
LA (normal by sex)a^
0 12 3 4.
LA (normal tot.) ^^
SA i FM tot. »
ITBM 8: Sits
unsupported.
Med,
Mean
8D OR
Med.
Mean
8D C
M:
.33
.40
-
N : .41
.46
-
F:
.50
.50
.
FM: 0
0
0
D:
-.10
•
D :
.45
CB
82
Item Specification
The S may raise himself or be raised to the sitting posture.
The slight temporal differences in this respect are here ignored
as are those other postural sequences which may be involved.
For scoring purposes the sitting is presumed to be on a relatively firm
flat surface without provision for other support. Balance may be some-
what unsteady, but the erect spinal posture is maintained for about a
minute or more.
Item 9. (LA .55) Pulls self upright.
This item is logically se-
quential to Item 8 combined
with Items 2 and 3 and per-
haps 6. The S now engages
in a number of voluntary pos-
tures which reduce his need
for assistance from others
and which lead ultimately to
walking.
This item is passed by 50 per
cent of the normative boys and 40
per cent of the girls at LA 0-1, and
by all S's thereafter. The mean
M-F difference is .10 years in favor
of the boys. The mean total norm
is .55 years.
Ninety per cent of the feeble-
minded S's at SA 0-1 pass this
item, and all thereafter. The mean
SA norm is .10 years. The mean
N-FM difference is .45 in favor of
the feeble-minded.
%'
f
j
M-
1
<
/
/
1-
-F
Iten
9
PLUS
100
FM"'
0 12 3 4...
LA (normal by 9ex)a^
Item 9
0 1 2 3 fl
LA (normal tot) ^
SA ( FM tot ) ^
M:
F:
D:
Med.
.50
.67
Item 9;
Mean SD
.50
.60
-.10
Pulls self upright.
CR Med.
N
FM
D
.59
.06
Mean
.55
.10
.45
8D
CR
Self-Help General
83
To pass this item the S is reported as frequently accustomed to pulling
himself to a standing position by holding to some fixed object within easy
reach. This object should be something other than a person, since a person
might pull the S to the upright position, whereas the S is expected to do
this for himself. The upright position is then commonly sustained with or
without hand support for about a minute or more.
Item 13. (LA .65) Grasps with thumb and finger.
This item is a particularization of Item 3. Instead of grasp-
ing with the entire hand or fist as a simple form of manipula-
tion, the S now uses thumb and finger for obtaining more minute
objects or a more effective grasp for which more precise co-
ordination is required. This increases the range in kind of object
that can be grasped, and again reduces the amount of attendance
needed.
The item is passed if the S commonly picks up small objects by means of
thumb and finger opposition. The objects are such as could not readily
be grasped without such manipulation. They are not to be handed to
the S, but are to be within relatively easy reach.
Fifty per cent of the normative
boys and 20 per cent of the girls
succeed in this performance at LA
0-1, and all thereafter. The mean
M-F difference is .30 years in favor
of the boys. The mean total norm
is .65 years.
Seven and one-half per cent
(counting half -credit as half-S) of
the feeble-minded S's succeed at SA
0-1, 60 per cent at SA 1-2, and all
thereafter. The mean SA norm is
1.33 years, SD ,54. The mean N-FM
difference is .68 years in favor of
the normal S's.
%
r
M-
/
1
i
/
-F
/;
1
1
1
i
:
tern
13
(!)
i
2
J
1. . .
US
/
1
N-
/
1
1
1 !\
1
FM
$
/
1
i,
1
1
[teni
13
1
4
0 ]
2
> I
4
...
LA (normal by Bex)"^
LA (normal tot)
SA( FMtot )
Item li
Med.
Mean
M:
.50
.50
F:
D:
.88
.80
-.30
Grasps with thwnib and finger.
8D CR
Med.
Mean
N :
.73
.65
FM:
1.31
1.33
D :
-.68
8D
.54
CB
84
Item Specification
The ability to pick up small objects is more important so-
cially than may at first appear. Like other such aptitudes, it
involves also certain hazards which must subsequently be dis-
creetly avoided. This item is further significant as prerequisite
to later self-help items, especially dressing.
Note that this is the first item thus far discussed which
shows comparative FM delay (SA versus LA maturation) in
spite of comparative LA advantage. The amount of mean differ-
ence is small, but the relative amount large. In the absence of
normative SD, a CR is not obtainable.
Item 15. (LA .85) Stands alone.
This is a logical extension of Item 9 and completes the pre-
walking motor series.
To satisfy this performance the S stands readily on a firm flat surface
free from support of person or object. Balance may be unsteady and may
be assisted by foot movements, but the standing position is maintained for
about at least a minute.
Twenty per cent of the normative
boys and 10 per cent of the girls
succeed at LA 0-1, and all there-
after. The mean M-F difference is
.10 years in favor of the boys. The
mean total norm is .85 years. The
maturation curve is notable for the
sharp rise in frequency of success
in the second year of life and the
influence of this on the mean (the
norm being v\rithin the first year of
life even though the item is passed
relatively seldom within the whole
range of that year).
The item is passed by all the
feeble-minded S's at SA 0-1 and
thereafter. The mean SA norm is
0 years. The mean N-FM differ-
ence is .85 years in favor of the
feeble-minded.
%
PL
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
LTS
if
FM /
M-
r^
/^
F
-N
'
J
/
/
tem
15
tem
15
1
i
0 1 2 S 4.. .
LA (normal by sex)"^
0 12 3 4-
LA (normal tot)
SA( FMtot )'
Item 15: Stands alone.
Med. Mean 8D CR Med. Mean SD
M: .88 .80 - N : .91 .85
F: .94 .90 - FM: 0 0 0
D: -.10 - D : ^5
CR
Self-Help Genekal
85
This item is more significant as a stage in the motor pre-
liminaries to walking than as clear evidence of social com-
petence per se. It is a commonly sought item in developmental
histories as are also balancing the head and sitting. The relative
advantage in SA maturation for feeble-minded S's derives from
their greater physical maturity due to the advantage (about 15
years) in life age.
Item 23. (LA 1.30) Overcomes simple obstacles.
The S now employs a group
of motor acts for the explora-
tion of his environment and as
a means of extending his social
effectiveness. With success on
this item the S surmounts
simple difficulties which other-
v/ise restrict his activities, or
employs new means of extend-
ing those activities. Success on
Item 18 (Walks about room
unattended) typically precedes
this item. (The categorical ex-
position of items tends to obscure their relatedness to items in
other categories. The reader may offset this by frequent refer-
ence to the Scale as a whole.)
To satisfy this item the S succeeds in such activities as opening closed
doors, reaching otherwise inaccessible points, climbing up on_ objects such
as chair or stool to increase his vertical extension, using a stick as an im-
plement for extending his reach, using some receptacle for transferring
objects from place to place more effectively. The activities should be some-
what varied though not necessarily very numerous. The criterion of custom -
ariness is related to simple situations, as well as to need, want or occasion,
and spontaneous resourcefulness.
A number of previous items are here combined as fairly
complex (integrative) behavior and the influences of matura-
tion on social competence becomes more clearly evident. Note
particularly that such extensions of behavior induce social haz-
ards both to and from the S. Hence this and corresponding items
micst be performed without unfavorable consequences to the
child or his surroundings. This involves the general factor of
safe or proper (discreet) as well as effective behavior (p. 68).
86
Item Specification
This item is performed success-
fully by none of the normative S's
in the first year of life. At LA 1-2
the item is passed by 75 per cent of
the boys and 65 per cent of the girls.
All the normative S's succeed there-
after. The mean M-F difference is
.10 years in favor of the boys. The
mean total norm is 1.30 years.
The normal versus feeble-minded
comparison shows close parallelism
between LA and SA groups. The
mean SA norm is 1.33 years, SD .70.
The mean N-FM difference is .03
years in favor of the normal S's.
r~—
%
/■
M
rV
i
r
-F
I
V
'
/
tern
23
PLUS
90
80
70
60
50
f-
1
1
N
r
fA-FM
•
10
1
■^o
''O
■1
10
•
Item 23
1
0 1
I. A (jjormal by sex>^ LA (normal tot)
S4(
FM tot )
Item 23: Overcomes simple obstacles.
Med.
Mean 8D CR Med. Mean
SD
M:
1.17
1.25 - N : 1.21 1.30
.
F:
1.27
1.35 - FM: 1.38 1.33
.70
D:
-.10 - D : -.03
OR
Item 26. (LA 1.43) Gives up baby carriage.
This item might have been placed in the locomotion cate-
gory except that the locomotion series is intended to reflect the
social responsibility displayed in getting about as contrasted
with the motor performances involved. Consequently this item
is placed in the general self-help category as another expression
of immediate personal independence.
A baby carriage, perambulator or auto cradle is commonly
used for transporting (other than carrying) children who do
not walk appreciable distances. As the child extends his walking
aptitude he reveals an increasing aversion to the restraints
imposed on his activities by these passive postures. He then
usually is taken about in a go-cart or auto chair, is carried short
distances in the upright posture, or walks holding some person's
hand or some moving object. The item is not intended to sug-
gest that the S now walks long distances, but rather that he may
be taken about much more easily. In short, his locomobility is
greatly simplified when the perambulator or equivalent may be
discarded for simpler forms of getting about. (Note that the use
of a wheel-chair as a substitute for a perambulator in the case
of cripples and invalids involves definitely more dependence than
is the case with a go-cart or equivalent.)
The item is passed if the S seldom is "taken out" by pram or auto
cradle, but instead usually walks, uses gfo-cart or chairseat, or is carried
only intermittently when "out walking."
Self-Help General
87
None of the normative S's pass
this item at LA 0-1, while 70 per
cent of the boys and 45 per cent of
the girls succeed at LA 1-2, and all
thereafter. The mean M-F difference
is .25 years in favor of the boys.
The mean total norm is 1.43 years.
Ninety per cent of Ihe feeble-
minded S's pass this item at SA 0-1,
and all thereafter. The mean SA
norm is .10 years. The mean N-FM
difference is 1.33 years in favor of
the feeble-minded.
%
/■
1
1
M-
4 '
1 ;
/ '
l»
'
/
[tem
26
ji
li
— lOO
0 12 3 4...
LA (normal by sex)^
0 12 3 4.
LA (normal tot)
SA( FMtot )
Med.
Mear
M:
1.21
1.30
F:
1.59
1.55
D:
-.25
Item 26: Gives up ba'by carriage.
8D CB Med.
N
FM
D
1.37
.06
Mean
1.43
.10
1.33
SD
CR
As in other items thus far in which the feeble-minded sub-
jects are relatively superior, attention is again called to their
advantage of life age (about 15 years at this level) which affects
items where the motor element is relatively more important than
the self-dependent element.
Item 35. (LA 1.98) Asks to go to toilet.
In early infancy the child lacks bladder and bowel control
and requires frequent attendance in this respect. Gradually
these controls are acquired, bowel control usually preceding
bladder control, and diurnal control usually preceding nocturnal.
As this comes about, the child first achieves personal "cleanli-
ness" by indicating his desire to go to the toilet, and by con-
trolled elimination between these periods. At this stage the child
still requires assistance at toilet, but if such assistance is avail-
able he seldom has toilet "accidents" during the daytime. Night
control at this stage is usually not yet established. This per-
formance involves transition from uninhibited reflex to volun-
tary habit. It is motivated not only by a desire for personal com-
fort, but also for social approval, and within limits by response
to special training.
88
Item Specification
We are not concerned here with cleanliness resulting from attention in
respect to which the child expresses no initiative. It is required that he
definitely indicate his needs by pertinent vocalization or gesture rather than
by mere general restlessness, thereby relieving his attendants of responsi-
bility for anticipating his needs. As a result of this responsible initiative
the S is generally clean as to eliminative habits during the day if help at
the toilet is readily available. He is not required to care for himself at the
toilet but only to responsibly and clearly call attention to his needs.
None of the normative subjects at LA 0-1 pass this item. Some suc-
cesses are observed at LA 1-2 followed by marked increases at LA 2-3.
All the subjects succeed at LA 4-5 and thereafter. Girls show earlier
maturation than boys, especially at LA 1-2; the mean M-F difference is
.45 years in their favor, OR 1.61. The mean total norm is 1.98 years,
SD .63. The maturation variability is somewhat higher for the girls. (Note
that this is the first item thus far discussed for which both SB's by sex,
and consequently the CR of the M-F mean difference, are available.)
The normative and
feeble-minded matura-
tion curves are nearly
coincidwital except for
slightly more individual
delay in success among
the feeble-minded S's
after SA 2-3. The mean
SA norm is 2.13 years,
SD .96. The mean N-FM
difference is .15 years
in favor of the normal
S's, CR .57. Note that
the SD for the feeMe-
minded S's is somewhat
larger than for normal
& s, ir
pling
lOicating more sar
variability.
1-
J 1 2 .;' 4 5 6. . . 0 I ;; n 4
LA (riorma! fey fexj"^ LA (rorrRf;' tot) ^^
SA ( F>i sut. ; "^
Item 35: Asks to go to toilet.
Med.
Mean
8D CR Med. Mean SD
M:
2.14
2.20
.42 N : 1.96 1.98 .63
F:
1.70
1.75
.71 FM: 1.95 2.13 .96
D:
.45
1
.61
D
:
-.15
CR
.57
Performance on this item will at first be thought of as
heavily influenced by environmental training and perhaps by the
nature and accessibility of toilet conveniences. More probably,
successful performance is governed by neurophysiological de-
siderata. As in all behavior training is ineffectual prior to the
establishment of a morphological basis to profit therefrom. The
ordinarily optimum period for training is that time-interyal
within which morphological maturation is most evident. Prior
to this interval training may be worse than wasted ; it may in-
Self-Help General
89
duce negativism, delay or conflict tendencies. Subsequent to this
interval, training may be unnecessary or may have to counter-
act imperfect self -initiated learning. Indeed, it is our conviction
that the normative standardization of the items which consti-
tute this scale is a significant guide to these optimum periods, or
psychological moments, for child training. This assurance is fur-
ther strengthened by the feeble-minded validation data (again
recalling their LA advantage) .
The accessibility and nature of toilet conveniences are also
evidently less important than at first appears and, like training,
influence the results only mildly within the period of neuro-
physiological development. This does not deny variation in the
cultural conventions which attend elimination. Toilet functions
are performed under such an extreme range of time, place and
material convenience that their variable effect cannot readily be
allowed for. We may not totally ignore the presumptive influ-
ences of training or convention in scoring; the examiner must
allow for them in evaluation as his insight and the S's circum-
stances may warrant.
Temporary lapses in control are encountered as associated
with illness, emotional stress, change of environment, diet, milk
or water supply, and so on. Some specific foods, experiences and
activities have a diuretic effect. There are also individual and sex
differences in frequency and other aspects of elimination. Like-
wise relatively permanent loss or abeyance of control is en-
countered under such circumstances as conflict situations, neuro-
physiological and anatomical deviations, mental or physical de-
terioration. These enuretic complexes require s]8ecial interpreta-
tion. But ad hoc scoring may still be adhered to as an indication
of fact with or without reference to explanation.
Item
41. (LA 2.85) Avoids simple hazards.
This item is a logical exten-
sion of Item 23 (Overcomes
simple obstacles) . The perform-
ances involved afford a con-
crete illustration of the need
for self -protection as compared
with the safeguards provided
by others. The item reveals
appreciation of simple environ-
mental dangers and efforts to
90
Item Specification
avoid them. These dangers are material and personal. They
involve caution with regard to strangers, protecting one's self
from the natural elements, use of potentially harmful tools or
utensils, relations with animals, perils of traffic, and so on.
We cannot anticipate all the dangers against which a child of
preschool age protects himself, but can mention some that are
representative.
To oDtain a plus score the self-protection should encompass a fair
variety of hazards, rather than a specific number. For example, the S
literally comes in (or does not go out) during inclement weather unless
suitably clothed or except as he has adult approval. He also figuratively
'comes in out of the rain," that is, he meets simple contingencies protec-
tively. He is generally cautious toward strangers and animals; has regard
for the possibility of dangerous falls; is careful with matches, sharp uten-
sils, broken glass, heavy objects, dishes, lamps; he keeps out of the street
or is watchful while in it or crcssirt^ it. In general, while normally ven-
turesome and inquisitive, the S expresses wariness toward familiar ex-
periences and a guarded manner of dealing with new experiences.
The normative curves show some irregular but compensating sex
difFerenccs. The rapid rise in performance on the part of the boys at LA
S-4 and the notable lapse at KA 4-5 may reflect sonie imbalance between
caution and venturesomeness. The mean M-F difference is 0 years. The
SD for the boys is somewhat higher than that for the girls. The mean
total norm is 2.85 years, SD 1.00.
The feeble-minded S's
are slightly in advance
of the normative S's at
all SA versus LA inter-
vals. This may be a re-
sult of lesser initiative
rather than more cau-
tion, but might also be
due to the factor of ex-
perience through more
advanced age. The mean
SA norm is 2.30 years,
SD .76. The mean N-FM
difference is .55 years in
favor of the feeble-
minded, CR 1.91.
— 100
80
%
K
r
1
/
n
\/
'
M^.
Y
•
/
■*-F
i]
IJ
If
'1
tem
41
/
^
I
60
US
/
f
' ^
>
/
¥
f
I
^M-
1
1
•
t-N
7
1
/
/
tem
41
j
i
0 12 3 4 5
LA (normal by sex)"^
0 12 3 4
LA (nonnal tot)
SA ( FM tot )
Item 44: Avoids simple hazards.
Med.
Mean
SD
CR
Med.
Mean
SD
M:
2.68
2.85
1.12
N :
2.64
2.85
1.00
F:
2.50
2.85
.86
FM:
2.14
2.30
.76
D:
0
0
D :
.55
CR
1.91
Self-Help General
91
This item reflects the child's independent capitalization of
experience as well as his response to advice and instruction. The
performance is somewhat influenced by personality attitudes,
such as heedlessness or timidity, and the examiner may note
this for other items or for overall behavior. Likewise, the haz-
ards vary with environment and parental solicitude. The exam-
iner must use his discretion as to the significance of such vari<
ables for scoring and evaluation.
Item 51. (LA 3.83) Cares for self at toilet.
This item is an obvious extension of Item 35 (Asks io go
to toilet) .
The S now not only is aware of his eliminative needs, but requires little
or no assistance in attending to them, except perhaps for unfastening and
fastening back buttons, tight garments or difficult fasteners. He cares for
himself completely at the toilet without usual need for other assistance,
and is free of daytime accidents. He is also relatively free of night acci-
dents which may, however, occur rarely. These operations may vary some-
what as to time, place, type of toilet or garments, the essential requirement
being that the child requires no assistance except with difficult clothing.
Thus, in the case of flush toilets, the S should be expected to operate them
himself. In the case of non-flush toilets or out-houses, he would not require
follow-up. He would also "clean" himself.
The maturation curves for the normative boys and girls are closely
similar except for slight individual differences. The curves show rapid
rise between LA's 3 and 5, with slight delay thereafter to LA's 6 and 7.
The mean M-F difference is .35 years in favor of the girls, CR .64. The
SD for the boys is some-
what higher than that for
the girls. The mean total
norm is 3.83 years, SD 1.19.
The feeble-minded S's
show an early but not
sustained advantage for
SA versus normative LA
groups. The mean SA
norm is 2.98 years, SD
1.30. The mean N-FM
difference is .85 years in
favor of the feeble-mind-
ed, CR 2.10, LA(ao™,alby«x).
—
%
PL
100
M
80
70
«0
SO
4ft
30
20
10
JS
^
•'*
/
*^
/
/
iT
V
p
F
M
f-
-•
N
1
■•M
'i
.•/
,'
/
1 1
/
,
tem
51
,'
1
r
tea
51
/
/
J
f
/
,(/
/
0
i
> (
r
...
i-"
i
t
...
LA (normal toL) ^
SA ( FM toL >^
Item 51: Cares for self at toilet.
Med.
Mean
8D
CB
Med.
Mean
8D
M:
3.86
4.00
1.35
N :
3,75
3.83
1.19
F:
3.61
3.65
.97
FM:
3,30
2,98
1.30
D:
.35
.64
D :
.85
CB
2.10
92
Item Specification
Comment on this item is similar to that on Item 35
(p. 88) . Note that several Self-Help Dressing items normatively
precede this item. These include removing and putting on (or
adjusting) garments and washing hands, although this last
nicety need not be routinely included as a conventional detail
for Item 51.
Item 68. (LA 7.28) Tells time to quarter-hour.
Following the preschool
years the child acquires ap-
preciation of time orientation
and employs this for practical
purposes. Thus, in the Binet-
Simon Scale at successive
ages the S knows the differ-
ence between morning and
afternoon, the days of the
week, the months, and the
date.
Since such practical information has previously been em-
ployed in tests of general intelligence we avoid its use in this
scale in spite of its significance for social competence. We have
however, included the use of timepieces as a feasible item be-
cause so many daily functions are regulated by time, and the
child's responsibility in respect to these functions is determined
in some measure by his ability to tell time approximately.
For this purpose the S is expected to read an ordinary timepiece (clock
or watch) to the nearest quarter hour, and to use this ability in regulating
his activities. We are not so much concerned with the intellectual ability
to tell time as with the routine employment of this ability in relation to
his social needs. By this means he insures his availability for meeting his
ordinary obligations of the day. It is not necessary that the S own or carry
a timepiece, but rather that he be practised in consulting one in relation
to comings and goings. Indeed, thi« performance may be scored emergently
Slus (Chapter 7) if the S inquires of others as to the time of day in rela-
on to his responsibilities without actually consulting a timepiece. In some
instances, he might be able to estimate the time of day by the position of
the sun or by some other device, but this would usually be a more difficult
expression of the same performance in the ordinary environment.
The examiner should be on guard against '"testing" the S
on this item. Not can the S tell time, but does he employ approxi-
Self-Help General
93
mate time orientation in daily activities. Ordinarily the ability
to tell time will accompany the use of time-telling.
Normative success on
this item is revealed be-
tween LA 6 and 10 years.
The mean M-F difference
is .25 years in favor of
the girls, CR .41. The
mean total norm is 7.28
years, SD 1.29.
The normal S's show a
definite though not very
large advantage over the
feeble-minded S's at all
LA versus SA periods.
The mean N-FM differ-
ence is 1.20 years in favor
of the normal S's, CR 2.75.
L i i
■5
'
/
'T''
/
^
^^
-M
//'
■
■
.'i
;/
/
Ue.~j fio
V
'
-iV
it
_
PLUS
W^ '
'
Si!
N1
'
J
:
/
t^
WA
;
I
*
I
*
Ucm
Sii
H)
/
,'
%>m
J
'
!.A (aurntal by sei
LA (normal ^*^' .
SA( FMtot )
» 11) W VI- ■■
Item ©6:
Tells time to q
Med.
Mean SD
CR
M:
6.94
7.40 1.40
N :
F:
6.83
7.15 1.16
FM:
D:
.25
.41 D :
Med. Mean
6.92 7.28
8.58 8.48
-1.20
SO
1.29
1.40
OR
2.75
Summary. This completes the items grouped under the
category of Self-Help General. No significant normative sex
differences are apparent for these items. The highest M-F CR
is 1.61 (Item 35) and the amount of the corresponding mean dif-
ference is only .45 years, although the proportional difference
is one-quarter of the base. No other CR in this category exceeds
.64 (Item 51) and no other mean difference exceeds .35 years
(also Item 51).
In the N-FM comparisons three items (41, 51 and 66) re-
veal CR's of 1.91, 2.10 and 2.75, respectively. The corresponding
mean differences are relatively small in amount although two of
them (Items 41 and 51) represent about one-quarter of their
bases. Numerically small (though relatively large) differences
are apparent for the items for which CR's are not available.
In recapitulation, we may note that the items in this cate-
gory do not lend themselves satisfactorily to other categorical
placement. Nevertheless, within the category certain serial se-
quences are observable. As noted in the general instructions
(Chapter 7), these serial items may be scored through one se-
quence of questions in which the entire series is encompassed by
94
Item Specification
>^
«
o
o
F-.
«
<
C)
^,
Fh
l-H
0^
U
o
>*
a
K
<
IX,
s
w
p
H
w
0<
fe
O)
CQ
>
a
o
;2:
0)
CQ
"43
s
o
fin
I I
C- r-l O 1:9
U3 0> T-j 1>
' iH oi <N
IMCgOOOOTl*Tj»«OOOOCOTH»OOON
O (M O t- O
ooooOoooooooeooooog
la t- T-tco ooi-ii-teooj"^
' r-! rH ■ (M* oi oi CX)
mooKjiaininiooeooousoooo
(Moosv3COTi«u3«DOoeoTi*05oqoqoi
T-i i-J r-J C4 CO t-
I I i ^ I s^
OOOOOOOOO^WOiOiO
C^ (M U3 O
"^ r-t 00 -*
oooooooomusui^iLamLo
eococo'^u3«ooqajeowc-;c)OCDrH
i-l rH r-< c4 CO t--
OOOOOOOOU300LOOO
(MCOOOOO-^kOkOOOCMCOC^IOOO^
1-t tH (M (M Tjt t>
(N00iO«O00O»00u3eO«OlOr-lT-t«3
Self-Help General 95
the same general interrogation. Note, however, that these se-
quential items do not necessarily involve continuous gradations
in a given case ; under special circumstances some superior items
in the same series might attain plus scores even though some
inferior item might be minus.
These item sequences within the category may be logically
extended into other categories. Thus Items 2, 5, 8, 9, 15, 26
extend naturally into the locomotion category and might be used
in connection with that category, the items of which are them-
selves in series. Or, vice versa, these items might be used as the
lower extension of the locomotion series, if the locomotion items
are scored first. As repeatedly observed, it is not practicable to
indicate specifically the shifting of interrogation from one cate-
gory to another since this will depend upon circumstances and
the appropriateness of any series or category in relation to the
level or range at which the examination is conducted. Conse-
quently, in presenting these instructions we are constrained to
follow an order of presentation which may not be the order that
might be followed actually in a given examination. Moreover,
the point at which the interrogation may be taken up within a
given series or within a given category will be determined in
large measure by the interview as a whole. This should follow
as a smooth conversation from the initial general orientation
data, naturally merging all interrogation in a continuous de-
scription of the S's social aptitudes.
96 Item Specification
Self-Help
Eating
My dear brother Augustine
Wants everything he wants,
And what he wants
He doesn't have,
And what he has
He doesn't want.
My dear brother Augustine
Wants everything he wants. — Mein lieber Bruder Augustine
Feeding oneself is another conspicuous manner in which
social independence is progressively expressed in the early years.
Those who take the various stages of this activity for granted
may overlook indi\iiduals who because of mental or physical
limitations never do learn to feed themselves or those who later
in life lose this ability. Most idiots, many cripples, the blind, and
some previously normal adults who have become disabled
through mental or physical deterioration require m^ore or less
assistance in this respect. Viewing this activity with regard for
its progressive social value a number of f^airly definite stages
may be recognized.
It will immediately be evident that the conditions of eating
vary materially with cultural situations. The primitive m.ay eat
with few utensils, or in social isolation observing certain taboos.
But whatever may be the conventional etiquette of eating, its
modus operandi reflects genetic maturation. It will be necessary
to determine by careful study whether manipulating chopsticks
is more or less difficult than handling a fork, whether drinking
from a cup with a handle is more or less difficult than from a
bowl without handle. The complexities of eating, the wide vari-
ety of food to which the average United States white resident
is accustomed, and the manner of its preparation and serving
may present elusive difficulties. Gnawing a bone when knight-
hood was in flower was presumably easier than is dissecting a
broiled fowl under conditions of modern polite society. Certainly
these differences must somehow be allowed for.
We are not here specially concerned with customs of eati Qg
except as these determine the degrees to which the individual is
capable of managing for himself. As far as practicable the fol-
lowing Scale items are restricted to those more fundamental
details of eating in respect to which elders are accustomed to
give aid to their juniors, or the more competent are accustomed
to assist the le'ss competent. It is both difficult and inadvisable
to formulate these items in such a manner as to satisfy the wide
variations incident to time and place. Until further investiga-
Self-Help Eating
97
tion reveals the actual difficulties involved in different modes of
eating, the examiner must rely upon his own good judgment
as to the equivalent difficulties.
This category contains 12 items, nine of which occur prior
to LA 3 years (2 at 0, 5 at I, 2 at II, 1 each at VI, VII and IX) .
The items are therefore specially relevant to the second year of
infancy or to rather low-grade feeble-minded S's and severe
stages of deterioration or handicap. Items 11, 25 and 39 are
serial for drinking. Items 28, 38, 62 and 67 for table utensils.
Items 16, 20, 30 and 33 for control and discrimination, while
Item 75 reveals an overall synthesis.
Item 11. (LA .55) Drinks from cup or glass assisted.
At first thought this
seems to be a relatively ad-
vanced performance. It is
preceded in fact by nursing at
the breast, nursing from a
bottle, or being spoon-fed. We
have avoided these earlier
details of eating because of
the comparatively wide varia-
tion in their performance and
have emplo3''ed this item in
their place because of its
greater universality.
The item is to be scored plus if the S commonly drinks from a cup,
glass, bowl or similar vessel assisted by someone holding the utensil. The
S will himself ordinarily also grasp the utensil, but does not employ it
independently. In either case the drinking is done with little or no spilling.
This means that the child is beyond the spoon-feeding of liquids and even
though still nursing drinks supplementary liquids instead of merely mouth-
ing them.
Successful performance on this item reveals emancipation
from breast or bottle feeding and a corresponding extension of
feeding opportunity and food variety. It is also a first step
toward self-feeding. An equivalent item might readily be
formulated as an alternative performance in terms of gruels
or semi-liquid foods being spoon-fed. Such spoon-feeding is a
somewhat less general performance than the drinking of
liquids during the period when most infants are breast-fed
or bottle-fed.
98
Item Specification
The item is passed by about
half of the normative S's in the first
year of life and by all in the second
year and thereafter. The mean M-F
difference is .10 years in favor of
the girls. The mean total norm is
.55 years.
The maturation curve for the
feeble-minded S's almost exactly
coincides with that of the normal
S's at corresponding SA vs LA
intervals. The mean SA norm is
.53 years. The mean N-FM dif-
ference is .02 years in favor oi
the feeble-minded.
LA (normal
LA (normal tot)
SA ( FM tot ) '
Item 11: Drinks from cup or glass assisted.
Med.
Mean
M:
.67
.60
F:
.50
.50
D:
.10
8D
CR
N
FM
D
Med. Mean
.59 .55
.55 .53
.02
8D
CR
Item 16. (LA .90) Does not drool.
Comparatively few negative items have been included in
this Scale. This is one of them. Most infants require more or
less frequent attention because of the lack of control of saliva-
tion, especially at times of teething. In some circles this
causes no concern, but in most the parent attends the child in
this respect. Gradually the inhibitory control of salivation is
established so that the lips and chin seldom require being wiped
except perhaps during or after eating. This is a further step in
the child's freedom from attendance by others.
Successful performance is recognized when the S no longer (seldom)
requires attention for drooling, no longer wears a salivation bib, or has
mastered salivary control except when eating. Note that in later teething
drooling is inhibited ; hence no special allowance need be made for intermit-
tent control between periods of dentition.
Drooling is not infrequently observed among children and
adults with cerebral palsy and among previously normal senile
adults. In such cases the item is scored minus if the S must be
attended in this respect, or plus if he attends to it himself.
Self-Help Eating
99
A few children have gained
this control by the end of the first
year of life. (Indeed, some children
drool but little or only rarely from
the time of birth, or only slightly
at periods of difficult dentition.)
By the end of the second year (LA
1-2) 90 per cent of the boys and 80
per cent of the girls succeed. The
mean M-F difference is 0. The F
sample is slightly more variable.
The mean total norm is .90 years,
SD .55.
The normative and feeble-
minded validation curves are nearly
coincident. The mean SA norm is
.85 years, SD .80. The mean differ-
ence is .05 in favor of the feeble-
minded subjects, CR .23.
% PLUS
100
LA (normal by sex)^
}s
a
f
/..FM
/
\
;
/
i
Jteiji 16
1
.A
2 3
normal tot)
1...
SA( FMtot )
F:
D:
Med.
.93
.90
.90
.90
0
Item 16: Does not drool.
SD CR Med. Mean 8D CR
.46 N : .92 .90 .55
.64 FM: .75 .85 .80
0 D : .05 .23
This item clearly shows the influence of general intellectual
and social maturation upon apparently physiological function.
Note that although the feeble-minded subjects average about 15
years older in LA than the normals at these SA versus LA
levels, the comparative successes on this item are substantially
the same. The term "drooling idiot" appears redundant.
Item 20. (LA 1.10) Masticates food.
Following breast-nursing and bottle-feeding the young in-
fant eats or is fed prepared semi-solid foods or gruels which
require relatively little mastication. In the second year of life
the chewing of more solid food offerings occurs, with the S em-
ploying teeth and/or gums. In the case of infants who have been
almost entirely breast-fed, this activity will be somewhat de-
layed; but most infants have some opportunity in this regard,
or if not, will indicate it by chewing non-edible material. This
performance is significant as enlarging the child's feeding
through the availability of a wider variety of food with less
preparation than if the child eats without masticating.
100
Item Specification
For a successful score, the S instead of merely "mouthing" soft food
breaks up and salivates solid or semi-solid food by chewing or mastication.
Naturally those children who hare no opportunity in this respect will be
temporarily penalized in this item. Plus NO scoring should be circumspect,
since lack of chewing makes feeding solids inadvisable. Note that feeding
which requires mastication may be undesirable because of the hazards of
choking, regurgitating or digesting. Delay in solid-food intake may be
based on well-advised restrictions, e.g., as in the typical soft diet offered
to idiot-grade mental deficients.
This item shows rapid matu-
ration in the second year of life,
without sex difference, in the nor-
mative sample. The mean total
norm is 1.10 years.
The normative S's show a
slight relative advantage over the
feeble-minded S's in spite of the
mean LA advantage ef the latter.
The mean SA norm is 1.40 years,
SD .81. The mean N-FM difference
is .30 years in favor of the normal
S's.
1 — i :i i — ?
LA (normal by sex)^
i i i S.
LA (normal tot) ,^
SA ( KM tot )"*
M:
F:
D:
Med. Mean
1.06 1.10
1.06 1.10
0
Item 20: Masticates food.
8D CR Med.
N
FM
D
1.06
1.26
Mean
1.10
1.40
-.30
SD
.81
CR
Swallowing unchewed solids may, as noted, disturb the
child's health or food habits. Dentition and gum resistance are
usually antecedent rather than prerequisite, but may be periodi-
cally somewhat inhibitory. The discrimination of edible
substances and the removal of food-coverings are provided for
in Items 30 and 33. As to customs, we recall the two-year-old
whose morning pork chop and cup of coffee caused no apparent
immediate distress !
Item 25. (LA 1.40) Drinks from cup or glass unassisted.
This is an extension of. Item 11. In place of cup or glass,
some other drinking vessel might be employed, such as a bowl
Self-Help Eating
101
or dipper. The important distinction is that the child does not
require assistance except that the liquid and the vessel contain-
ing it may be supplied him. This item has a further evolution in
Item 39 (Gets drink unassisted) in which the S is responsible
for obtaining the utensil and the liquid.
The item is to be performed witliout serious hazard or spilling, since
otherwise the amount of independence which the S experiences in drinking
unassisted would be ofifset by the consequences of doing so in an unsatis-
factory manner. The surroundings, utensils and liquid should be familiarly
acceptable since otherwise the strangeness of the environment, article or
beverage might interpose resistive inhibitions. The S may grasp the vessel
as may please him, ignoring handle or using both hands. As an associated
superior detail he might pour from pitcher to drinking vessel or dip from
a bucket or other large container, but this would be an embellishment
rather than a requirement.
The item shows rapid matura-
tion for the boys in the second
year of life, and in the third year
for the girls. The mean M-F differ-
ence is .40 years in favor of the
boys. The mean total norm is 1.40
years, SD .45.
The normative LA versus fee-
ble-minded SA curves are closely
identical. The mean SA norm is
1.43 years, SD .40. The mean N-FM
difference is .03 years in favor of
the normal S's, CR .22.
h
y-
1
1
/
1
1
M-
/
1
1 1
-F
1 1
1 '
1
1
J
f
1
1
Iten
25
'
i
012S4... 0123 f
LA (normal by sex)^ LA (normal tot)
SA( FMtot )
Item 25:
Med. Mean
M:
1.09 1.20
XT' .
1.67 1.60
D:
-.40
Drinks from cup or glass unassisted.
8D CR
.42
N :
l.SO
1.40
.45
Fl^:
1.37
1.43
.40
D :
-.03
CR
Ji2
This and other relatively "explosive" (rapid maturation)
curves, and those coupled with closely identical normative LA
versus feeble-minded SA performances in spite of the latter's
markedly higher associated life ages, are witness to the practi-
cability of the Scale and the formulation of items. While not all
the items ideally satisfy these desirabilities, they do for the most
part successfully approximate them. The marked dependence of
feeble-minded performance on SA rather than LA for items
that a priori seem functions of age rather than ability is
specially clear in the lower levels of the Scale.
102
Item Specification
Item 28. (LA 1.53) Eats with spoon.
In eating some solid foods
the S may use his fingers.
However, in the average
United States environment,
when eating most solid or
semi-solid foods some eating
utensil is employed. In its
simplest form, this consists of
using a spoon and bowl, cup,
or plate, and commonly re-
quires eating in the sitting
posture at a table.
To satisfy the item, the food may be cut up or broken up before serv-
ing, but the actual consumption of food by means of a spoon is accom-
plished without help and without appreciable spilling. If a plate is used
instead of a cup or bowl, a "pusher" of some sort may be used, such as a
piece of bread, or some utensil. The child, of course, might without detri-
ment to the score eat in a standing posture, or even while sitting on the
floor. The important thing is that after the food is prepared for him he
does not have to be fed. The process is obviously somewhat less difficult
if a baby-spoon is used in place of the ordinary teaspoon.
The item is passed by 70 per
cent of the boys and 25 per cent of
the giris in the second year of life
and by all the normative subjects
thereafter. The mean M-F differ-
ence is .45 years in favor of the
boys. The mean total norm is 1.53
years.
The normative and feeble-
minded validation curves are close-
ly approximate. The mean SA norm
is 1.45 years, SD .82. The mean
N-FM difference is .08 years in
favor of the feeble-minded.
T 2 3 r _
LA (normal by sex)«^
Item 28
M:
1.21
1.30
-
F:
1.83
1.75
-
D:
-.45
Eats with spoon.
N
FM
D
1.55
1.25
JS
^•*'
*"
'
FM
-J
1
1 /
If
\ 1
1
I
I ten
28
ij
J-
0 1 2 3 4 V-
LA (normal tot.) ^
SA ( FMtot )^
1.53
1.45
.08
.82
Some children are breast-fed to a relatively late age and
Self-Help Eating
103
this may delay the habitual use of spoon through limited oppor-
tunity. Maturation seems more significant than training ; hence
too generous allowance should not be made for lack of opportu-
nity or parental indulgence.
Item 30. (LA 1.65) Discriminates edible substances.
In the early stages of infancy it is necessary to guard the
child against eating objects indiscriminately, especially such as
might be harmful. As the child learns to distinguish edible from
inedible substances and resists the temptation to ingest anything
at hand, this vigilance may be relaxed.
In passing this item, therefore, the child typically avoids mouthing or
swallowing substances commonly considered unsuitable for eating, except
as this may be a tentative "sampling" of such substances. The essence of
the item requires that the S does not require frequent watching in respect
to his tendency to carry objects to the mouth.
Normative success in this per-
formance is achieved between the
second and fourth years of life. The
mean M-F difference is .10 years in
favor of the boys, CR .29. The total
norm is 1.65 years, SD .74.
Normative LA and feeble-
minded SA maturation are closely
similar. The mean SA norm is 1.63
years, SD 87. The mean N-FM
difference is .02 in favor of the
feeble-minded subjects, CR .08.
%
PLl
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
JS
f
A
/
f i
'/
— >
/
I
■'M-
7
M-
~~yl
^
r
-F
/
r
1
Iten
I 30
1
Iten
i30
1
7
7
'/
0
I
i
\
i
>■..
0
I
i
;
,...
LA (normal tot) .^ LA (normal tot) _^.
SA( FMtot )■•■ SA( FMtot )^
Item 30
Disc
riniinates edible substances.
Med.
Mean
8D
CR
Med. Mean
SD
M:
1.33
1.60
.75
N : 1.41 1.65
.74
F:
1.50
1.70
.73
FM: 1.66 1.63
.87
D:
-.10
.29
D : .02
CB
The S should not eat certain substances, such as candy,
peanuts or bananas before their coverings are removed either by
himself (Item 33) or by others. The item is therefore related to
Item 41 (Avoids simple hazards), and to Item 33 (Unwraps
candy) . The S should not be held responsible for avoiding sub-
stances which are in themselves edible but not suitable for diges-
104
Item Specification
tion, such as green apples, or foods which might have a delete-
rious eif ect on him, beyond his reasonable range of information
or experience. (Note also comment on Item 33.)
Item 33. (LA 1.85) Unwraps candy.
This item is closely related to Item 30. Although the item
caption is specific, it is intended as a general activity, namely
the removing of coverings from various edibles. This requires
not only appreciation of the inedibility of these covers but also
some resourcefulness in removing them.
Score plus if the S as a rule uncovers enclosed edibles, without need
of reminder, before masticating them. "Candy" is to be understood as a
generic term for similar "eats," including gum or cakes. Likewise, "un-
wraps" includes peeling bananas and oranges (but not apples or edible
skins) removing shells from nuts, and rejecting pits from such fruits as
prunes, peaches and cherries. The S may obtain assistance from others
when such manipulation requires strength or skill, or he may reject or
eat around pits and cores. Ordinarily, inedible skins, sh«lls and pits will
be removed in advance for him, but covers or centers which involve only
simple manipulation should be removed by him, usually by hand or by the
hands and teeth or mouth. Essentially the S more than discriminates the
inedible parts of such food substances and on his own initiative removes
or rejects those parts except for assistance where dexterity beyond his
years is necessary. Otherwise the performance reverts to Item 30.
The item reveals rapid ons©t of
accomplishment between the sec-
ond and third years of life. The
mean M-F diiference is .10 years in
favor of the normative boys. The
mean total norm is 1.85 years, SD
.38.
The feeble-minded SA matura-
tion curve closely follows the nor-
mative LA progression. The mean
SA norm is 1.95 years, SD .68. The
mean N-FM difference is .10 years
in favor of the normal S's, CR .56.
n
^ '
PLl
rs
M-
J
i-F
30
30
70
SO
50
4C
30
20
10
<
"IC
-F^
\
N-
J
\
1
\
1
1
!
i
1
j
Iten
i33
Iten
S3
f
,/
/
0
I
nori
iial
>yse
x)^
>
3A(
nor
F
\lto
tot)
t
1
»...
M:
F:
D:
Med.
1.88
1.93
Mean
1.80
1.90
-.10
Item 33: Unwraps candy.
8D CR Med.
.46
N
FM
D
1.90
1.92
Mean
1.85
1.95
-.10
SD
.38
.68
OR
.56
To repeat, the caption designation for this item should not
be taken too literally. Some S's are not given candy ; "candy" is
Self-Help Eating
105
here used for any edible substance from which coverings or cores
may readily be removed. If the S refuses to eat such substances
instead of removing their inedible accompaniments, such refus-
als are to be considered under Item 30.
Item 38. (LA 2.35) Eats with fork.
In the typical United States environment, the use of a
fork supplements or replaces the use of a spoon. This involves
Kot only more dexterity, but also certain hazards, since the fork
is a more "dangerous" implement than the spoon. Otherwise this
item is substantially the same as Item 28.
The food may be prepared for the S, but he is expected to eat without
appreciable spilling. It is not required that the fork be used for cutting,
but only for conveying the food from the plate to the mouth, either by
piercing the food or by balancing it on the tines. Ordimarily, but not neces-
sarily, a plate will be used in such eating instead of a bowl.
Success on this item is achieved without appreciable sex variation be-
tween the second and fifth years of life by the normative S's. The mean
M-F difference is 0. The mean total norm is 2.35 years, SD .86.
The normative S's
significantly excel the
feeble-minded S's by a
small advantage at all
IxA. versus SA matura-
tion periods. The mean
SA norm is 3.10 years,
SD 1.19. The mean N-
FM difference is .75
years in favor of the
normal S's, CR 2.23.
This may be due in part
to a tendency to restrict
the use of forks by low-
grade feeble-minded
subjects because of the
hazards involved.
%
PLI
JS
»
^'
'''
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
£0
10
C
•
•
r
/,
/
F-i
1
hi
/
/
;'
1 /"
t-M
/
1.^
•FW
,
if
N-i
/
1
(
1
1
i
1
i
7
Iten
3g
/
1
1 .
It«n
lis
7'
r 1
/,
-r
1
^
>
LA
non
Cl
>y »
Cy.
S
7...
A
nor
nal
tot
«•-
>
...
SA( FMtot )'
Item
Med.
Mean
8D
M:
2.25
2.35
.92
F:
2.09
2.35
.80
D:
0
38: Eats vAth fork.
Ch Med.
N
FM
D
2,14
2.94
Mean
2.35
3.10
-.75
8D
.86
1.19
GB
2.23
The use of a fork to replace or supplement a spoon involves
nicety as well as convenience in eating. It applies of course to
solid or semi-solid foods. A "pusher" may be employed without
detriment to score. The use of a baby-fork facilitates the per-
formance with normal infants.
106 Item Specification
Item 39. (LA 2.43) Gets drink unassisted.
This item extends Item 25
by enabling the S to get a
drink for himself instead of
merely drinking what is of-
fered him.
For this purpose the S uses any acceptable drinking utensil, but does
so without assistance. This may be a cup, glass, dipper, bowl or other
device with or without handle (including fountain, stream, hand dipping,
and so on). The utensil may be employed in any manner the S desires. He
should, however, be able to obtain this utensil for himself if it is reasonably
accessible. Likewise, the source of the beverage should be accessible,
whether from a tap, bucket, bowl or other source. We should not expect
the S to draw the water from a pump or well, nor to drink face down
from a spring or brook. There should be no external dangers to overcome,
nor is it required that the S use good judgment as to the sanitary safeness
of the supply. Success in these respects yields a fortiori plus score. How-
ever, some discrimination should be expected as to hot and cold, waste
or unclean, prohibited, dangerous or unfamiliar liquids.
Successful normative perform-
ance matures rapidly between the
third and fourth years of life. The
mean M-F difference is .25 years in
favor of the boys. The mean total
norm is 2.43 years, SD .51.
The feeble-minded S's show a
relatively small but statistically re-
liable advantage over the normal
S's. The mean SA norm is 1.95
years, SD .51. The mean N-FM dif-
ference is .48 years, OR 2.89.
%
L
•'
ff
1
M-
-w
t
HF
ji
7
1
[tea
39
,
./
0
i
2 .
?
4
b...
LA (normal hy sex)i
LA (normal tot) _^
'SA( FMtot )'•'
Item 39: Gets drink unassisted.
Med.
Mean
8D
M:
2.21
2.30
-
F:
D:
2.41
2.55
-.25
.61
CR
N
FM
D
Med. Mean
2.30 2.43
1.94 1.95
.48
8D
.51
.51
CR
2.89
In general this item shows the S ordinarily successful in
getting a drink "on his own" as desired, in familiar surround-
ings and without hazard or messing. The element of hazard is
Self-Help Eating
107
implicitly (but not explicitly) provided for in Item 41 (Avoids
simple hazards) which "comes" a half-year later. Hence the
careful avoidance of unsanitary, dangerous or prohibited
"drinkables" is not urged as a necessary (though desirable)
detail in this item.
Item 62. (LA 6.03) Uses table knife for spreading.
Whereas the use of a fork
supersedes that of a spoon in
less than one maturational
year, more than three and a
half years (on the average)
intervene between use of fork
and use of knife. This is prac-
tically confirmed in the field
of merchandising; baby-
spoons and baby-forks are
more commonly marketed
than are baby-knives. The use
of a knife is generally more
hazardous and requires more
manipulative skill than does
the use of a fork. The knife is used for both spreading and cut-
ting, but the former use appears much simpler than the latter.
%
PU
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
JS
;-
L
^•^
^ '
,•'
^
F-»-
y
1
/
/
y
/_
-M
FM
->v
/
/
%^
^m
A
-N
/ \
/
\^
1
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rJ
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162
1
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62
/
' 1
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14
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l
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i
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i i
4...
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I
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5A(
nor
nar
4 to
i
tot)
t. )
\
T
'i
i
i
6 i
1 1
l.„
ilea. Mean
8D
CR
Med.
Mean
8D
M:
6.70 6.10
2.26
N :
6.00?
6.03
2.24
F:
5.75 ? 5.95
2.18
FM:
4.26
4.75
1.34
D:
.15
.14
D :
1.28
CB
2.14
108
Item Specification
This item is satisfied if the S uses an ordinary table knife in familiar
circumstances for spreading bread with butter, jam or other "spread,"
provided this is done without appreciable messing. As in the other eating
items, in performing this act the S should not require more assistance
in cleaning up after him than would be required if the act were performed
for him.
This item is the first of thoae thus far discussed which shows a wide
spread (or large SD) for the period of effective maturation. This may
speculatively be attributed to (1) actually prolonged period of maturational
success, or (2) variable environmental stimulation, opportunity or re-
striction. The absence of significant sex variation confirms neither of these
speculations. The mean M-F difference is .15 years, OR .14. The mean total
norm is 6.03 years, SD 2.24. The normative F and total N curves reveal
"awkward distributions" (p. 363) with consequently dubious medians.
The graph shows an evident and statistically reliable advantage of
the feeble-minded S's (in SA versus normative LA groups disregarding
about 18 years difference in LA) over the normative S's, coupled with sim-
ilar wide maturational range. The mean SA norm is 4.75 years, SD 1.34.
The mean N-FM difference is 1.28 years, CR 2.14, with the normative SD
nearly twice that for the feeble-minded.
Item 67. (LA 8.05) Uses table knife for cutting.
This item extends Item 62.
In performing this item the S is not required to overcome special
difficulties such as those offered in the case of tough meat, meat on bones,
fowl or other circumstances requiring special skill and patience. To
satisfy the item the S no longer needs someone else to cut up the food
served for him (whether meat or other edibles) but usually does this satis-
factorily for himself as occasion warrants.
%
PLl
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
JS
/
<f'
y
x»'
/
?
Iten
67
i
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67
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(y «
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i
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6 1
1 1
\...
LA
J.
!nor
mal
tot
1
i
1
6 f
S. 1
J...
M:
F:
D:
Med.
8.79
7.50
Item 67: Z7ses table knife for cutting.
Mean
8.35
7.75
.60
8D
1.91
1.9i
CR
.66
N :
FM:
D :
Med.
7.93
5.35
Mean
8.05
5.55
2.50
SD
1.95
1.37
CR
4.58
Self-Help Eating
109
Like Item 62, this performance shows delayed and irregular emergence,
maturing principally between the seventh and twelfth years of life. The
mean M-F difference is .60 years in favor of the girls, CR .66. The mean
total norm is 8.05 years, SD 1.95.
The maturational advantage of the feeble-minded S's on this item is
materially greater than on Item 62 and is one of the largest amounts and
highest CR's of all items studied (Table 9). The mean SA norm is 5.55
years, SD 1.37. The mean N-FM difference is 2.50 years, CR 4.58.
Many S's will be encountered whose parents find it simpler
in the family routine to perform this item for the S instead of
permitting or encouraging him to do it for himself. However,
one notes that most S's tend to assume this responsibility as
soon as they can. One might speculate that on this item and on
Item 62 the delay and irregularities in the maturation curve may
leflect (1) incomplete examining, (2) prejudiced informing, or
(3) variable social circumstances. Among these and the previous
speculations the most plausible seems to be actual slowness of
acquisition in the performance as such.
Item 75. (LA 9.03) Cares for self at table.
This item represents a
general consolidation of the
principal details of feeding, in
that the S now looks after
himself for substantially all
his needs at the table.
Within a plus score the S Biay occasionally (but not ordinarily) re-
ceive minor assistance in some relatively difficult details such as removing
a boiled egg from the shell, cutting difficult meat such as fowl, remov-
iing bones from fish, extracting the contents of a hot baked potato, and so
on. He may be served at table as a social custom, but otherwise he appro-
priately helps himself according to accepted standards (without too much
emphasis on the details of etiquette), and in general requires little or no
attention at the table. Such performance is assumed to be successful away
from home as well as in familiar surroundings. Attention which reveals
family or other table services not really needed by the S are not bars to
pJus scores.
The normative maturation curves show fairly rapid maturation be-
tween the ninth and twelfth years of life. The mean M-F difference is .45
years in favor of the girls. CR .60. The mean total norm is 9.03 years,
SD 1.61.
As in Item 67, the feeble-minded S's show a marked advantage over
the normative S's. The mean SA norm is 6.40 years, SD 1.12. The mean
N-FM difference is 2.63 vears, CR 5.84.
110
Item Specification
^A (normal by sex)"
r^
%
/
(ten
75
/
/
f
"*/
1
> J
H
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F-
-»>
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r^
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) 1
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1 1
2...
0«.5
LA (normal totj
SA ( FM tot. {
Item 75:
Cares
for self at table.
Med.
Mean
SD
CR
Med.
Mean
SD
M:
9.50
9.25
1.41
N :
9.25
9.03
1.61
F:
8.50
8.80
1.75
FM:
6.33
6.40
1.12
D:
.45
.60
D :
2.63
CR
5.84
In scoring this item the related performances should be
relatively familiar and free from penalties due to specific cus-
toms or inelegant table manners. The examiner will, however,
require judgment in respect to table habits and the general social
proprieties to be expected.
Summary. In this category we find no statistically signifi-
cant normative sex differences. The highest CR is .66 (Item 67)
and the largest mxean difference is .60 years (Item 67).
The normative-feeble-minded comparisons show five items
(38, 39, 62, 67 and 75) where the CR is 2.00 or higher. The first
three of these CR's are below 3,00 and the corresponding mean
differences are small in amount but proportionally one-quarter
to one-third of their bases; the last two are fairly large in
amount and more than one-half of their bases. Item 38 favors
the normal S's; the other four favor the feeble-minded.
This category is readily explored by beginning with such
a general lead question as "How much help does S receive at the
table (or in feeding himself)," or "I suppose S looks after him-
self in eating (or at the table) ," or ''How far along is S — " and
so on. The informant will usually enumerate some details spon-
taneously ; these may then be pursued to more and more specific
elaboration of particulars.
Selp-Help Eating
111
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112 Item Specification
Self-Help
Dressing
What shall I do for him noiv that he is grown?
Send him forth on his own.
Shall I no longer tuck him in bed?
Give him a latchkey instead.
Shall 1 7iot ivarn that pride takes a fall?
Not at all; not at all.
(I must never forget he's a man among men
Noiu that he's ten!) — Jean Crosse Hansen
Like eating, some degree of dressing is a universal activity
and one in respect to which the development of independence and
responsibility is readily obvious. Primitive forms of concealment
or adornment are in some respects more complex than those of
our time and place. Likewise body cleanliness is a concern which,
while varied in demand or expression, is a universally distribut-
ed observance. It is possible to job-analyze the details of dressing
Yvith a high degree of refinement, but somewhat more difficult
to select those critical stages which reflect a minimum of indi-
vidual differences and which are sufficiently typical to permit
ready formulation of definition.
This category deals v/ith two separate aspects of dressing-,
namely, personal cleanliness and the use of garments. The
examiner m.ust exercise some discretion in regard to variations
in social standards and customs and in respect to variation in
time and mode of toilet routines and type of clothing worn.
Tiie 13 item.s in this category extend from early infancy
to adolescence (1 at I, 3 at II, 2 at III, 2 at IV, 2 at VI, and 1
each at VII, VIII and XII-XV) . The clustering of 7 items at
II, III and IV makes the category specially relevant for the
preschool (later infancy) years or the borderline between
high-idiot and low-imbecile degrees of feeble-mindedness. A
minor cluster of 4 items is evident at VI to VIII years (early
childhood or high-imbecile feeble-mindedness) .
Two series of items are apparent, (a) dressing and undress-
ing (Items 21, 37, 42, 47, 54, 65) and (b) cleansing (Items 40,
50, 52, 64, 70) . Items 65 and 74 include both. Item 86 synthesizes
the category and adds superior details.
Self-Help Dressing
Item 21. (LA 1.13) Pulls off socks.
li:
Although dressing logi-
cally precedes undressing, in
actual performance the latter
is generally the easier task
and is performed earlier. An
early stage of undressing is
seen in the removal of foot
coverings. In the young infant
these are easily manipulated
if not too firmly fastened.
"Socks" is here used as a generic cue for bootees, slippers, and un-
fastened shoes or stockings. To pass the item the S removes such footwear
withcut help, provided these are already unfastened, or can be readily
unfastened by the S. This should be done as a deliberate and frequent act
of undressing rather than as merely occasional, playful or perverse activ-
ity. The articles in question are presumed to be of sufficiently loose fit or
simple fastening to permit easy manipulation. Thus, shoe laces, slipper
buttons, sandle buckles, elastics or garters should not constitute serious
impediments.
This performance shows rapid
normative maturation in the second
year of life. The mean M-F differ-
ence is .15 years in favor of the
girls, CR .44. The mean total norm
is 1.13 years, SD .73.
The normative S's excel the
feeble-minded by a mean difference
of .42 years.
0 1 2 3 4...
LA. (normal by sex)^
LA (normal toL) ,
SA( FMtfflt )
Item 21: Pulls off socks.
Med. Mean 8D CR Med. Mean SD CR
M: 1.00 1.20 .82 N : 1.02 1.13 .73
F: 1.05 1.05 .61 FM: 1.59 1.55
D: .15 .44 D : -.42
The examiner should inquire whether the S may have been
disciplined against this activity in its playful stage, or whether
114
Item Specification
the activity is authoritatively restricted. (If so, this may require
NO scoring.) It is not required that the S show good judgment
as to time and place, but rather as to purpose.
Item 37. (LA 2.05) Removes coat or dress.
This item resembles Item 21, but is relatively more difficult
from the point of view of manipulation.
Again the garments involved, such as coat, dress, sweater-coat, waist
or overcoat, may first be unfastened or should permit easy manipulation
by the S. It is assumed that the clothing is not torn or damaged in the
process. Under these circumstances the S usually removes such outer gar-
ments without assistance. Intermittent assistance may be received as a
sentimental courtesy, but such aid is not needed.
The normative performance on
this item reveals a mean M-F dif-
ference of .30 years in favor of
the ffirls, OR .79. The mean total
noi-m is 2.05 years, SD .82.
The feeble-minded S's show an
advantage of .27 years over the
normal S's.
%
f^
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37
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Item 37:
L.\ (nornal by «ex)a^
Removes coat or dress.
PLl
100
90
£0
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
'S
1
y
/
1
^
-N
m-
Ij
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l
1
1
j
4
Iten
37
f
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LA
5A(
1
nor
F
inal
Wto
4
tot)
t )
1
Med.
Mean
8D
CR
Med.
Mean
SD
M:
2.13
2.20
.88
N :
1.95
2.05
.82
F:
1.86
1.90
.71
FM:
1.86
1.78
—
D:
.30
.79
D :
.27
CB
The caption phrase, "coat or dress," refers to any outer
garment which may be removed by slipping off when unfastened,
with or without need of pulling over the head. No assistance is
conceded except for unfastening, and the performance is to be
usual rather than occasional. Help may be allowed for tight
garments but presumably loose-fitting garments will be worn
frequently enough to permit standard scoring.
Item 40. (LA 2.60) Dries own hands.
Washing various parts of the body logically precedes drying
them. But drying is in fact easier than washing. Thus, drying
the hands without assistance is found to be easier than washing
Self-Help Dressing
115
them and maturationally precedes other lavational details.
This item is satisfied if the S dries his own hands acceptably without
help, employing towel or other suitable means beyond merely exposing
them to the air or wiping them on his clothing. The hands may be washed
ie*r ' ^^^ towel may be supplied him, or he may obtain it for him-
self if accessible. However, the S requires no assistance in adequately dry-
ing his hands.
The normative
mean M-F difference is
.30 years in favor of the
girls, CR .67. The mean
total norm is 2.60 years,
SD .95.
The normative S's
excel the feeble-minded
by .40 years, CR 1.52.
0^ 1 " 2 3 , -,
LA (aormaj by sex)a*
A (normal tot)
SA( FMtot )'
M:
F:
D:
Med.
2..50
2.12
Mean
2.75
2.45
.30
Item 40:
SD
.90
.99
Dries own hands.
CR Med.
.67
N
FM
D
2.28
3.00
Mean
2.60
3.00
-.40
SD
.95
.65
CR
1.52
Item 42. (LA 2.85) Puts on coat or dress unassisted.
/
This item is satis-
fied if the S is able to
put on outer garments,
such as dress, coat or
overcoat, without help
or need of adjusting,
except for buttoning,
which may be done for
him. Such clothing
should be such as not to
require difficult manip-
ulation and should be of
such a style as not to
interpose exceptional
manipulative difficul-
ties. "Ck>at or dress"
includes garments noted
in comment on Item 37,
but not necessarily cov-
eralls, leggings, rubbers
(see Item S4).
116
Item Specification
The normatiTe
mean M-F difference is
.50 years in favor of the
girls, CR 1.14. The
mean total norm is 2,85
years, SD .97.
The mean N-FM dif-
ference is .40 years in
favor of the feeble-
minded, CR 1.60.
%
/
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/
/
y
/
F-
/
/
1
1 /
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1 1
1 /
If
/
/
Item 42
;
./
LA (
norr
iaii
i 4
>y se
x)-j
> . . .
PLl
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
JS
1
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1 .
/
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1
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Item 42
/
./
LA
r*2 s
normal tot.)
i
3
br
SA ( FMtot )
Item 42: Fu
Mt&.
Mean SD
M:
2.83
3.10 1.10
F:
2.33
2.60 .75
D:
.50
Puts on coat or dress unassisted.
CR
1.14
N :
FM:
D :
Med.
2.50
2.33
Mean
2.85
2.45
.40
SD
.97
.51
CR
1.60
Item 47. (LA 3.35) Buttons coat or dress.
Soon after the child has mastered putting on garments he
learns to button or fasten them.
The normative mat-
uration curves show
the girls consistently in
advance of the boys.
The mean M-F differ-
ence is .50 years in their
favor, CR 1.19. The
mean total norm is 3.35
years, SD .92.
The feeble-minded
S's by SA are consis-
tently in advance of the
normative S's by LA.
The mean N-FM differ-
ence is .30 years, CR .98.
1
%
4
f
F-
->■/
/
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PLUS
If'
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70
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50
40
30
20
10
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1 I
1 I
Item 47
;
1
J
S?,
i
I
: i
. ,
) (
>..•
(normal tot)
;A ( FM toL )
Item 47:
Med.
Mean SD
M;
3.50
3.60 .87
F:
3,00
3.10 .90
D:
.50
Buttons coat or dress.
CR Med.
N : 3.25
FM: 2.92
1.19
D
Mean
3.35
3.05
.30
SD
.92
.96
CR
.98
Self-Help Dressing
117
For present purposes the buttons or fasteners should mot present seri-
ous difficulties of manipulation. The clothing should be reasonably well
adjusted and the fastening done in such a manner as to require little or
no readjustment or assistance. Success on Item 42 usually but not neces-
sarily precedes this item. (It is assumed in this and other dressing items
that if the S has difficulty with some articles of clothing because of de-
tails of manipulation, there will nevertheless be a suflScient number of
articles of clothing which can easily be manipulated so as to remoTe any
doubt as to his general ability in these regards.)
"Buttoning" here includes such fasteners as buttons (other
than tiny), slide fasteners, snaps and buckles, but not neces-
sarily hooks and eyes or tie-fasteners. In general these should
not be difficult to manage, as when too new or too old, too stiff
or too limber. Hence "habitually" here means as a rule and when
no serious material obstacles to manipulation are present.
Some may question the absence of an item for unbuttoning
garments. Such an item was "tried out" but did not "standard-
ize" satisfactorily.
Item 50. (LA 3.83) Washes hands unaided.
Washing the hands with-
out assistance is found to be
more difficult than drying
them. Moreover, this task
must be done more thoroughly
in order to avoid need of as-
sistance.
This item is satisfied if the S washes his hands (usually with soap or
similar cleanser) without need of "going over" and also dries them. The S
may receive admonishment, but this should not have to be too often or too
persistent. As one criterion for the adequacy of washing, the towel or other
means of drying should not be unduly soiled as a result of inadequate wash-
ing. In this the S should be able to perform the entire task for himself,
making his own arrangements as to soap and water (provided these are
readily accessible), tempering the water, not messing, and in the highest
state of performance "cleaning up." This last step need not be insisted
upon, since it may under some circumstances be a specially inculcated
habit which (unfortunately !) is not always attended to even by some adults,.
This "removing the evidence," such as disposing of or suitably replacing the
towel, cleaning or removing the receptacle, rinsing and replacing the soap,
and other homely meticulous details affords a good example of the differ-
ence between fastidious habits as opposed to raw performances in this and
other categories. This "touching up" of item performance is an added glor j
which, all too seldom followed through, should not disturb the punctilious
«xaminer on this or other items.
118
Item Specification
%
PLl
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
JS
,<'
/
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f?
;s-
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nor
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SA ( FM tot )
Item 50:
M:
F:
D:
Med.
4.50
3.61
Mean
4.30
3.35
.95
1.56
.97
Washes hands unaided.
CR
1.56
N
FM
D
Med.
3.77
3.93
Mean
3.83
4.05
-.22
SD
1.38
.87
Ci2
.59
The normative performances show fairly rapid maturation between the
•third and fifth years for the girls with slightly delayed success (larger SD)
for the boys. The mean M-F difference is .95 years in favor of the girls,
CR 1.56. The mean total norm is 3.83 years, SD 1.38.
The normative versus feeble-minded performances are maturationally
similar (disregarding differences in LA) but with sharper SA versus LA
rise (lower SD) for the feeble-minded. The mean N-FM difference is .22
years in favor of the normal S's, CR .59.
Item 52. (LA 4.65) Washes face unassisted.
This item is much the same as Item 50, except that washing
the face presents special difficulties which have to be taken into
account. Thus, adequate washing and drying of the ears is so
much more difficult (or at least less well attended to) than
washing the face itself, that this detail is excepted at this stage.
Indeed, there is some literal warrant for the expression "Not
dry behind the ears, yet."
The item is satisfied for plus scoring if the S washes and dries hia face
without need of help except for the ears. He may be assisted on occasion
for soap in the eyes. Like washing his hands, he may require being told*
but not too often.
Self-Help Dressing
%
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52
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90
80
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60
50
40
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Item 52
1
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r t
( IS
..•
LA (normal by sex)^
LA (normal tot> _^
SA ( FM tot. >^
Item 52:
Washes
face unassisted.
Med.
Mean SD
CR
Med.
Mean
8B
M: 4.93
5.05 1.66
N •
4.57
4.65
1.46
F: 4.30
4.25 1.10
FM
4.80
4.65
.86
D:
.80
1.21
D :
0
The mean normative M-F difference is .80 in favor of the girls, CR 1,21,
The mean total norm is 4.65 years, SD 1.46.
The normative and feeble-minded validation curves are closely similar
except for briefer span (lower SD) for the feeble-minded S's. The mean
N-FM difference is 0 years.
In respect to other details, the comment on Item 50 applies
on this item also. There should be little need for inspectional
"going over" except perhaps for special occasions.
This item affords an illustration of those minor individual
differences (such as cleansing the ears) which disturb the mat-
urational specification of inclusive details. If cleansing the ears
is included in the definition of success for scoring, then the
performances are confused with individual differences which
frustrate a satisfactory standardization. Yet such a detail may
be included in a later item where these differences are cancelled
by a higher degree of maturation.
120
Item Specification
Item 54. (LA 4.80) Dresses self except tying.
At this stage of dressing
the child (or handicapped old-
er person) is able to "man-
age" most ordinary articles of
clothing if these are laid out
or designated. Thus, the S now
puts on his own underclothing,
his outer clothing, shoes, hat,
ribbons, ties, and so on, and
fastens them except for tying.
He may receive some assist-
ance in the manipulation of
those articles which require
special aid, such as the suit-
able adjustment of scarfs or
mufflers, ribbons, overshoes, slip-over and all-over garments,
garments buttoning up the back, and garments which are close
fitting or otherwise specially difficult to put on.
This item is satisfied if the S routinely performs the ordinary task of
dressing in everyday clothes, except for tying, with only minor assistance
on exceptional garments or for exceptional occasions such as dressing for
parties, or dressing for going out when the occasion requires more than
usual care. The item includes Items 42 and 47 but not necessarily 50 and 52.
%
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non
nal
i 'i
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\ i
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PLl
100
90
80
70
60
50
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r
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1
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•
40
1
1
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30
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54
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1
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nor
1
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tot)
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k..
Item 54:
F:
D:
Med.
5.03
4.50
Mean
5.85
4.25
1.10
SB
1.50
.84
SA( FMtot )■*
Dresses self except tying.
CR Med.
1.93
N
FM
D
4.82
3.45
Mean
4.80
3.80
1.00
8D
1.33
.96
CR
2.66
Self-Help Dressing 121
The normative standardization shows rapid maturation for the girls
between the fourth and sixth years of life, with longer delay and irregular
lapses (unaccountably marked at LA 6-7) and consequently larger SD
for the boys. The mean M-F difference is l.lO years in favor of the girls,
CR 1.93. The mean total norm is 4.80, SD 1.33.
The feeble-minded S's show a consistent advantage (and lower SD)
over the normative S's. The mean N-FM difference is 1.0 years, CR 2.66.
The irregular performance of the boys (which is reflected
in the total N) may be due to changes in type of garments at
different years not encountered in the case of girls, but this is
not clearly confirmed by specific inquiry, nor is it evident from
the FM SA curve.
Item 64. (LA 6.23) Bathes self assisted.
In the early stages of total body cleansing, the mother,
nurse, or other attendant "gives" the child a bath. This requires
preparing the shower, tub, or bathing medium, tempering the
water, and the entire process of bathing. In the course of time,
the child splashes around in the tub and gradually is permitted
to assist in the bathing process. Subsequently the child is able
to bathe himself under supervision with some assistance, and
this stage is represented by this item.
The significance of the item derives from the fact that ex-
cept for the preparatory and final details, the S may be left to
accomplish the bathing routine for himself. In other words, the
supervision does not require the immediate presence of a second
person in the actual act of bathing except as noted.
To satisfy the item the S bathes and dries himself "overall," including
the face, but not including washing and drying the ears, the hair or the
back. The bathing means may be prepared, and the water drawn and
tempered for him; also the S may be "inspected" and "touched up" in
those areas where special cleanliness should be assured. The tub or recep-
tacle may be drained and cleaned for the S. Some protective supervision
may be advisable in special circumstances (e.g., risk of scalding by hot
water or other dangerous conditions).
This item shows steady maturation between the fifth and ninth years
of life for the normative girls, and between the fifth and eleventh years for
the boys. The mean M-F difference is .85 years in favor of the girls, CR
1.08. The mean total norm is 6.23, SD 1.73.
The feeble-minded S's show more rapid maturation (lower SD) in SA
groups than do the normative S's at LA intervals. The mean N-FM dif-
ference is .40 years, CR .92.
122
Item Specification
T\
/
y
/■
F—
/
^
/
y
/..
M
1
1
f
1
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1
1
1
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^
:/
Iten:
64
1
7
((.
J
Urt
I
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i
>
t
i 1
6 1
1...
100
(normal by sex)"
M:
F:
D:
Med.
6.83
5.88
Item 64:
Mean SD
6.65 1.91
5.80 1.41
.85
3^ 5 6
LA (normal tot.)
SA ( FM tot. )
Bathes self assisted.
CR Med
1.08
N
FM
D
6.17
5.77
Mean
6.23
5.83
.40
1.73
.81
CE
.92
Care should be taken by the examiner not to be too lenient
in scoring those S's who merely playfully assist at the bath, nor
too severe in scoring those S's where, because of solicitude,
impatience or sentiment, the S is not permitted to bathe him-
self. However, plus NO scoring on this item should be used
with discretion even though in some environments the regi-
mentation may make it difficult for the S to exercise independ-
ent activity. Note that in spite of presumptive limitations the
(institutionalized) feeble-minded subjects show no SA disad-
vantage. Table 10 shows only one + NO score for the FM S's
and none for the N S's.
Item 65. (LA 6.75) Goes to bed unassisted.
In this item the act of un-
dressing is related to the vari-
ous other responsibilities at
retiring. The undressing itself
at this stage is relatively sim-
ple, but is only one part of the
associated routines (e.g., pre-
paring for the night at the
toilet, and divorcing one's self
from the social environment) .
Going to bed alone and at-
Self-Help Dressing
123
tending to one's needs in social isolation marks a definite step
in maturation in respect to which the tasks are less important
than the conditions under which they are performed.
To completelj' satisfy the item the S voluntarily, and as a customary
performance, removes himself from the rest of the household and without
assistance prepares himself for bed. He might, however, be reminded of
the hour, or be accompanied to bed and "tucked in" as an evidence of
affection, but such assistance should be sentimental rather than necessary.
The routine involved, such as simple washing, brushing the teeth, going
to the toilet, lighting or extinguishing the illumination, should be reason-
ably interpreted according to circumstances. Thus, presumably taking a
kerosene lamp to the bedroom, going to bed in the dark or at a relatively
remote distance, using an outside toilet, and other possibly apprehensive
details may be waived if these apparently interpose special difficulties.
Scoring discretion must also be exercised in respect to other details such as
the regulation of heat and ventilation. Also it is permissible for some older
and more responsible person to check up on the outcome, adjusting these
somewhat more remote factors. Timidity and fear of darkness should be
regarded as marks of immaturity, unfortunate conditioning, or poor train-
ing which render the scoring minus in fact but may be allowed for in
evaluation. Contrariwise, the situation is less difficult if the S shares
the bed or room, or retires in company with others. Tliese many variable
circumstances make it necessary to allow the examiner considerable
leeway for scoring.
%
PLl
100
so
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
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Item
165
/
Iten
i65
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SA ( FMtot )
Item 65: Goez to bed unassisted.
Med. Mean SD CR Med. Mean 8D CR
M: 7.50 7.35 1.46 N : 6.75 6.75 1.95
F: 5.90 6.15 2.18 FM: 5.95 6.45 1.79
D: . 1.20 1.37 D : .30 .49
This item shows steady though not very rapid normative maturation
between the fourth and eleventh years of life, with the girls consistently in
advance of the boys (but with larger SD). The mean M-F difference is
1.20 years, CR 1.37. The mean total norm is 6.75 years, SD 1.95.
The normative versus feeble-minded performances are closely similar
in SA versus LA groups. The mean N-FM difference is .30 years in favor
of the feeble-minded subjects, CR .49.
124
Item Specification
This item reveals relatively delayed maturation as com-
pared with those previously discussed. However, its evolution is
steady and consistent for both normal LA and feeble-minded SA
progressions. These consistencies tend to offset the misgivings
regarding adequate scoring.
Item 70. (LA 8.45) Combs or brushes hair.
Care of the hair represents a relatively late achievement in
the process of "dressing," but in spite of its apparent scoring
difficulties, shows rather rapid maturation when it emerges.
To satisfy the item, the S typically brushes or combs his hair, without
assistance, well enough not to require "going over" under ordinary circum-
stances. We are not concerned here with the total care of the hair as a
routine habit, but rather that the S fulfills the need for personal attention
to this detail when dressing, or before going out, or "repairing" his appear-
ance, or in anticipation of receiving company. We may distinguish here
between the need for help and the desire of the mother or attendant to
somewhat affectionately review the outcome even though there may be
little such practical need. In the case of girls, this item includes simple
dressing of the hair such as braiding, and the use of suitable pins and
ribbons. In the case of girls with bobbed hair or curls, this item is per-
formed much the same as by boys, and the successful parting of the hair
seems to be the principal difficulty. In the case of girls with long hair, the
braiding or other manner of dressing of the hair need not be too skilfully
done, but should be done well enough to satisfy ordinary circumstances,.
It is not required that other details of hair-dressing which might ordinarily
be done by a second person, such as curling the hair, be performed inde-
pendently. Washing and drying the hair are not required until Item 8S-
%
PLl
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
JS
1
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Item 70: Combs or brushes hair.
Med.
Mean
an
CR
Med.
Mean
SD
M:
9:00
8.80
1.75
N :
8.39
8.45
1.47
F:
8.30
8.10
1.00
FM:
6.17
6.33
1,58
D:
.70
1.05
D '.
2.12
CR
4.29
Self-Help Dressing
125
The performance normatively matures principally between the ninth
and tenth years of life for the girls, and the ninth and twelfth years for
the boys, except for a few precocious subjects at the sixth, seventh and
eighth years. The girls precede the boys at all but two minor LA intervals
(with smaller SD). The mean M-F difference is .70 years, CR 1.05. The
mean total norm is 8.45 years, SD 1.47.
The feeble-minded S's show a marked advantage at all SA versus
normative LA intervals. The mean N-FM difference is 2.12 years, CR 4.29.
The common expectation that girls succeed later on this
item than boys because of greater manipulative difficulties la
clearly contradicted by these data. The girls definitely excel the
boys although not by a very marked or significant amount.
Similarly the feeble-minded excel the normative S's, and the
comparative difference is fairly large in both amount and statis-
tical reliability. Girls presumably overcome the manipulative
obstacles by more intense motivation; the (institutionalized)
feeble-minded subjects are under consistent stimulation plus the
mean advantage of fifteen to twenty years in life age. Insofar
as the performance is dependent on motor aptitude this is not
clearly apparent from related evidence or inference.
Item 74. (LA 8.85) Bathes self unaided.
This item is a superior
extension of Item 64, in which
the entire bathing process is
now accomplished without
help except for washing and
drying hair.
To satisfy the item the S prepares and tempers the tub, shower or
other means of bathing; undresses; bathes without need of assistance; dries
self without need of touching up. In short, the bath is routinely accom-
plished entirely without help except for the hair, which may be washed
and dried by someone else independently of the bath itself or coincidentally
with it.
The normative curves show smooth and rapid acceleration between the
ninth and twelfth years except for unaccounted advance success by some
girls at the seventh year (or lapse at the eighth year). The mean M-F
difference is .90 years in favor of the girls, CR 1.17. The mean total norm
is 8.85, SD 1.69.
The feeble-minded excel the normative S's at all significant SA versus
LA intervals. The mean N-FM difference is 1.25 years, CR 2.34.
126
Item Specification
r
%
PLl
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
JS
r
/
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i74
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74
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LA
SA (
r^5 6 7 8 i
normal tot.) ^
FM tot. ) ^
> 10 11 12...
Item 74: Bathes self unaided.
Med. Mean SD CR Med. Mean SD CR
M: 9.30 9.30 1.28 N : 8.92 8.85 1.69
F: 8.64 8.40 1.91 FM: 8.33 7.60 1.61
D: .90 1.17 D : 1.25 2.34
This item requires scoring judgment regarding the varieties
of bathing conventions, media and routines. A dip in the river
vi^ithout benefit of soap seems a far cry from the complexities
of a hot shower or Turkish bath. Privacy versus attendance at
the bath is another consideration. Suffice it here to state some-
what dogmatically that when the maturational period is attained
the minor vagaries of Tnodus operandi seem readily accommo-
dated. This has already been noted in previous items. More
serious are the environmental restraints of parental or parent-
surrogate solicitude, and of institutional regimentation, regard-
ing safety and meticulous cleansing. Yet even these are actually
or surreptitiously overcome when maturity in this performance
becomes dominant. These comments apply with less force to
Item 64 where attendance at the bath is expected. The comment
for Item 50 regarding emptying and cleaning the bath receptacle
and generally restoring the material situation to its original
orderliness is pertinent here also; such conscientious habits
certainly increase one's total competence but cannot readily be
•incorporated in particular items without introducing the vari-
ables of personality differences or specific indoctrination. Note
that Table 10 shows only one normative and four feeble-minded
-1-NO scores. Yet there is a standing rule that none of these
FM S's should bathe alone or unsupervised (because of possible
Self-Help Dressing
127
scalding or other risks). Here again those who can, do. Or,
when restrictions are not necessary they tend to be unenforced.
(For habit interference see p. 66.)
Item 86. (LA 12.38) Exercises complete care of dress.
This item is an inclusive
summation for the totality of
self - help in dressing and
cleansing, plus additional de-
tails. At this stage the individ-
ual rarely requires assistance
in any detail of personal toilet.
To satisfy the item the S bathes himself completely, including w^ashin^
and drying the hair; pares his own nails (hands and feet); shaves himself
if bearded; makes a proper selection of clothing according to the occasion
and the weather; ties his own laces, neckties, ribbons or sashes; in short
entirely looks after himself in cleanliness and dress except for occasional
assistance in fastening inaccessible parts of the clothing and perhaps lit
preparing for specially formal occasions. Cosmetic makeup on the part of
girls may be an added but not required detail. Advice may be sought re-
garding suitability of dress.
PLUS
ion
%
A
^r
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V
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i
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nSf
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S 1
7 1
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LA (normal by sex)i*
SA ( FM tot. )
i tcl.)^
CR
Item 86: Exercises complete care of dress.
Med. Mean 8D CB Med. Mean 8D
M: 12.17 12.20 1.73 N : 12,33 12.38 2.00
F: 12.64 12.55 2.23 FM: 9.14 9.23* 1.24*
D: -.35 .37 D : 3.15 5.82
*100% assumed at SA 12-13.
Success on this item shows steady and rapid progression by norma-
tive LA intervals between the twelfth and sixteenth years except for a
few emergent successes before the twelfth year and a lapse for both sexea
at LA 14-15. The mean M-F difference is .35 years in favor of the boys,
CR .37. The mean total norm is 12.38 years, SD 2.00. The absence of notable
128
Item Specification
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eq © 00 o>
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icoooicmicicoeoLfjcooeo
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rHt-ONt-Ofi^'^'rfia O
Self-Help Dressing 129
sex difference may surprise some students.
This is the first item thus far discussed in which the feeble-minded
S's do not show complete final success in the SA group range available.
(Item 76 is the first such item in the Scale as a whole. For discussion of
statistical implications see comment p. 361.) In this instance if v/e assume
complete success at SA 12-13 and thereafter in view of (1) the close
approximation to one hundred per cent at SA 11-12, (2) the stable pro-
gression of the curve, and (3) the nature of the item, then the mean SA
norm is 9.23 years, SD 1.24; and the mean N-FM difference is then 3.15
years in favor of the feeble-minded, CR 5.82. This would then be the larg-
est amount of difference and also the largest CR found for any of the
normative-feeble-minded comparisons. Actually the fragmentary data be-
yond SA 11-12 show 90 per cent passes at SA 12 (N = 15), 87.5 per cent at
SA 13 (N = 7), 92.5 per cent at SA 14 (N = 6), lOO per cent at SA 15
(N = 4) and SA 16 (N = 5). Because of these incomplete data this item is
omitted from Table 9-A.
Summary. The normative sex differences in this category
are all in favor of the girls except Item 86. However, the differ-
ences are both numerically and relatively of small amount and
low reliability. Item 54 reaches a CR of 1.93 and a mean differ-
ence of 1.10 years (one-quarter of its base) . All other CR's are
below 1.57 and the mean differences (except Item 50) below one-
quarter of their bases. On Item 86 the difference is in favor of
the boys but is of small amount and low statistical significance.
In the feeble-minded comparisons four items (54, 70, 74
and 86) have CR's of 2.66, 4.29, 2.34 and 5.82, respectively. All
of these favor the feeble-minded subjects; Item 54 by a mean
difference of 1.00 years (one-quarter of the base), Item 70 by
2.12 years (one-third of the base), Item 74 by 1.25 years (one-
seventh of the base), and Item 86 by 3.15 years (one-third of
the base). All other CR's in this category fail belovN^ 1.61 and
the amounts of difference are negligible. Item 86 shows the
largest mean difference and the highest CR of all the normative-
feeble-minded comparisons for the entire Scale, but this result
is rendered somewhat uncertain by incomplete data at the upper
extremity of the SA ogive.
It may be helpful to comment further on the variations in
sex in respect to these items. In many details of dressing, in-
cluding specially care of the hair, the performances seem a
priori to be somewhat more difficult for girls than for boys.
However, this is somewhat offset by apparently greater in-
centive among girls and the greater premium they apparently
set upon dressing. There is also a somewhat closer relation (in
dressing) of girls to their mothers, or to their elders of the
same sex, which tends toward a greater emphasis on dressing
and therefore tends to develop greater attention to these per-
formances. In the final stages this somewhat greater variation
130 Item Specification
in the dressing process among girls is offset in some degree
among boys by the practice of shaving and the special difficulties
of tying neckties, although this in turn is at least equalled on
the part of girls in the details of hair dressing and the more
or less complicated use of ribbons and later of cosmetic makeup.
Some comment may also be pertinent in regard to the en-
vironmental standards of dressing which on the whole tend to
be somewhat reduced for boys, as well as in the lower occupa-
tional classes and the simpler environments. At lower cultural
levels the standards of dressing are somewhat more simple or
the modes of dressing less refined, so that in these respects it
is not surprising if S's in inferior or primitive environments
may seem to perform these items more easily. Actually, in
gathering these data few difficulties were encountered in regard
to these variables within the environmental sample employed.
However, in other environments and for other samples these
difficulties should be seriously investigated by the accumulation
of pertinent systematic data. The apprehensions of the examiner
in this regard will be more evident in a priori expectation than
experienced in fact. The arm-chair fine points of distinction so
easily argued for all items of the Scale seem to dissipate under
careful study.
Locomotion 131
Locomotion
The census-taker encountered an unschooled mother and
asked for the ages of her five children. She declared
she couldn't remember. On further urging, she said, "Well,
there's one lap child, one creeper, one porch child,
one yard child and one school child." — Willard Olson
The title for this category is somewhat misleading, sug-
gesting as it does (at least to psychologists) the motor aspect
of getting about, whereas our major concern is with the social
responsibilities associated therewith. It might more appro-
priately have been termed "social locomotion" and was indeed
originally called "social movements."
Locomotor activity reaches its primary peak in body me-
chanics by about the fifth year of life (running, skipping,
jumping), but the social accompaniments of locomotion increase
with the range of expression as individual maturity elaborates
use and need. This category, therefore, covers a wide span of
years and is fairly consistent in its sequential evolution. The
individual not only expresses increasing degrees of independ-
ence and responsibility in respect to his geographical horizons,
but also expands his social effectiveness through this ever-
widening extension of his peregrinations. Note particularly that
the motor aspects of each item generally precede the social
aspects.
In the case of physically handicapped or deteriorated sub-
jects (crippled, enfeebled, blind and to some extent the deaf)
the motor aspect of the item as a precondition of success may
not be ignored in fact but may be allowed for in evaluation.
"Walks" in such cases means "goes" in some way, perhaps with
use of cane, crutch, wheelchair, guide, dog or attendant. The
degree of dependence upon such aids must be reckoned with if
without them the person is rendered immobile or unsafely
mobile. This presents difficulties of scoring that cannot clearly
be anticipated in all such subjects but must be weighed with
objective candor by the examiner according to the circumstances
obtaining. Nor should the examiner be too subjectively op-
timistic in inferring that if the S could walk with physical
ease he would assuredly meet the social requirements of these
items. Plus NO scoring is generally inappropriate in most such
instances but may be admissible for some. Plus F scoring is
permissible (if otherwise appropriate) if the incapacity is
temporary (Chapter 7).
132 Item Specification
In the case of mentally and socially handicapped or de-
teriorated subjects (e.g., mentally deficient, psychopathic, epi-
leptic, senile or infirm, socially maladjusted, delinquent and
criminal) the social aspect of these items looms larger than the
motor requirements. These performances place a premium on
discretion and judgment, or freedom from unfortunate conse-
quences of their exercise. This introduces a difficulty of
estimating the kind and degree of mental, social and moral
responsibility that must be reckoned with and the conventions or
proprieties to be exacted without becoming puritanically moral-
istic. Usually the examiner will have no difficulty in resolving
these components, but he should not become too discouraged if
some such scoring is unavoidably dubious. Plus NO scoring may
be applicable to the more advanced items but should be skep-
tically objective. Plus F scoring may also apply to the more
advanced items provided the loss of performance is only tem-
porary and that the restraints to performance are not imposed
because of difficulties resulting from such performances.
In the case of institutionally confined or otherwise regi-
mented environments, plus F and plus NO scoring may be
necessary for some items. In such situations candid objective
regard for the above considerations is essential to sound scoring.
Also in some environments, and in certain social strata, ques-
tions regarding much or little occasion for exercise of the item,
as well as custom, fashion, incentive, and means will call for
discriminating judgment. These eventualities are so varied,
yet ordinarily infrequent, that to provide for them here would
be at best only confusing even if not otherwise impracticable-
It may be noted parenthetically that such modes of locomo-
tion as running, skipping and jumping while logically contribu-
tory to effective movement did not readily lend themselves to
use in this scale because of the varieties of conditions and in-
dividual differences involved. Likewise, except as included in
occupation and socialization items, no emphasis is placed on
various means of locomotion (such as scooters, skates, bicycles,
automobiles, trains, ships, airplanes) because of their variable
universality for personal use.
The 10 items of this category extend from years O-I to
XVIII-XX (1 at 0, 3 at I, and 1 eachatIII,IV,V,Ix; XV-XVIII,
and XVIII-XX). Simple ambulation is apparent in the second
item (Item 18) and is a difficult phase in the fourth and fifth
(Items 32 and 45). The other items have an essentially social
rather than ambulatory significance. The items are serially
sequential for the category as a whole.
Locomotion
133
Item 12. (LA .63) Moves about on floor.
Certain items in the
SHG category constitute a
premonitory extension of the
environment through rolling
over, reaching and grasping,
sitting, and the like. These de-
velopments enable the S not
only to move about within his
immediate environment, but
also to explore and manipulate
that environment. This in-
creases his opportunities for
self-expression and own de-
pendence, but also introduces
certain hazards to himself or
to the environment in so doing. Consequently, the child's loco-
motor activities give his elders perhaps as much concern as
satisfaction, since locomobility produces risks as'w^ell as ad-
vantages.
This performance shows rapid
normative progression in the later
first and early second years of life.
The mean M-F difference is .85
years in favor of the normative
girls. The mean total norm is .63
years.
Nearly all the feeble-minded
S's succeed at SA 0-1, and all there-
after. The mean SA norm is .05
years. The mean N-FM difference
(ignoring mean LA difference) is
.58 years in favor of the feeble-
minded.
Med.
Mear
M:
.88
.80
F:
D:
.41
.45
.35
SA(
FMtot )
ibout on floor.
Med.
Mean
SD
N : .70
.63
-
FM: .03
.05
-
D :
.68
CB
134
Item Specification
In the stage of locomotion represented by this item the S gets about
on the floor by creeping, crawling, rolling over, and so on. He may be more
or less guarded or watched in his movements in order to protect him from
environmental hazards. In this early stage, therefore, the item is satisfied
if in moving about on the floor the S does not become involved in appre-
ciable difficulties. This is witnessed by the extent to which more responsible
persons may "keep an eye on him." The motor performance is only a pre-
condition of the social consequences.
Item 18. (LA 1.03) Walks about room unattended.
This is an extension of Item 12 in both motor and social
directions. Walking as opposed to simple "moving" greatly
extends the range, speed and amount of getting about.
The S now walks about the room instead of creeping, rolling or crawl-
ing, and is unattended except for occasional admonition or casual oversight.
More important than the motor activity itself is the increased personal re-
sponsibility that accompanies it. Consequently, in spite of greater activity,
the necessary watchfulness is little more than for Item 12. In other words,
the S materially enlarges his environmental movements (as represented by
a single room) without increasing hazard; or as the possible hazards are
increased his greater maturity enables him to cope with them more inde-
pendently.
This accomplishment shows
substantially total normative mas-
tery in the second year of life. The
mean M-F difference is .05 years in
favor of the boys. The mean total
norm is 1.03 years.
The normative S's excel the
feeble-minded by .15 years, in spite
of the latter's life age advantage.
This emphasizes the social content
of the item since all these feeble-
minded subjects are physically
ambulatory but not socially very
responsible at this SA period.
%
PLl
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
JS'
—
/-
^F
1
M-
/
'-FI
4
\
N-H
1 (
] 1
<
•
1 (
1
•
/
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il8
•\
Iten
18
i
il
\
nori
tal
►
Ik*
LA
SA<
non
Fl
I
mal
Vlto
lot)
i...
M:
P:
D:
Med.
1.00
1.03
Item 18:
Mean
1.00
1.05
-.05
Walks about room unattended.
D CR Med. Mean
N : 1.01 1.03
PM:
D :
1.27
1.18
-.15
8D
.75
CB
Locomotion
135
Item 29. (LA 1.63) Goes about house or yard.
This is an extension of
Item 18 in that the environ-
ment is extended from a
single room (at a time) to
other rooms of the house and
to certain parts of the yard.
"House" here means a single floor of any familiar abode^ where some
responsible person is within sight or call, and where the oversight required
as to the S's whereabouts is little more than for a single room. This "range"
may be extended to a yard which is something more than a play-pen,
whether or not enclosed, but again where some responsible person is within
sight or hearing. In either house or yard certain areas or "deadlines" may
be indicated so that the S may be forbidden to enter certain rooms or to go
beyond certain limits in an unfenced yard, or oflf the porch. If the S uses
the yard, he need not be required to go up and down steps alone (see Items
32 and 45), but may be taken to or from the yard. If he goes about the
house or porch, he may be protected in his movements by outside doors or
porch gates. Aside from these limitations, the S is relatively free to move
about and the exercise of this freedom requires only intermittent watch-
ing or checking up, rather than continued surveillance or concern as to
Ms probable whereabouts and actions.
The normative maturation for
this item occurs between the second
and fourth years of life. The mean
M-F difference is .05 years in favor
of the boys, CR .14. The mean total
morm is 1.63 years, SD .73.
The normative and feeble -
Blinded performances are closely
similar in LA versus SA groups.
The mean N-FM difference is .08
years in favor of the feeble-minded,
CR .37.
%
r
/
/
M-
~2»
-F
1
Iteir
29
/
u
1
!
[--^
1"
PLUS
LA (nonnal by »ex)^ LA (normal tot)
SA ( FM tot )
F:
Item
29:
Goes about house
or yard.
Mea.
Mean
&B
CR
Med. Mean
SD
1.33
1.60
.75
N :
1.S7 1.63
.73
1.41
1.65
.74
FM:
1.60 1.55
.60
-.05
.14
D :
.08
OR
.87
136
Item Specification
Item 32. (LA 1.75) Walks upstairs unassisted.
Walking upstairs is both more difficult and more hazardous
than the preceding locomotion items. Coordination and balance
are at a premium, and if the S should fall there is genuine
danger of bodily injury. In the early stages the child may
creep step by step, using arms and knees instead of treading
the stairs. Usually this act is so precarious as to require close
watching. Following this the S may walk upstairs holding the
hand of some person and usually taking two steps to a tread.
In these protected stages the child may be guarded from falling
even if no actual help is given. We have not employed these
early stages because of the wide individual differences in man-
ner of doing so and because other phases of locomotion of sub-
stantially similar difficulty could be more readily employed.
The item shows rapid norma-
tive maturation in the third year of
life. The mean M-F difference is
.30 years in favor of the boys. The
mean total norm is 1.75 years, SD
.45.
The feeble-minded S's show a
mean advantage of .97 years over
the normal S's, CR 4.75.
The motor aspect of this item
is taken as a partial guarantee of
its social aspect. This appears to
account for the advantage reflected
in the feeble-minded S's.
%
I
.p^
1
M^
1
1
1
h
1 1
■'
/'
nh
I 32
Y !
/i 1
0 1 2 3
LA (normal by sex)**^
0 1
LA {normal tot)
SA( FMtoL i'
Item 32:
Med.
Mean SD
M:
1.67
1.60
F:
1.93
1.90 .46
D:
-.30
Walks upstairs unassisted.
CR Med. Mean
N
FM
D
1.81
.70
1.75
.78
.97
SD
.45
.77
CR
4.75
This item requires that the S go upstairs without help and without
watchful protection. It also requires that the S walk, rather than creep or
go on "all fours," since such maneuvers usually require oversight. However,
if the S habitually creeps or otherwise goes upstairs with consistent safety
and without supervision, plus scoring may be allowed. He may hold to the
banister or the wall, but not to a person, and may take two steps to a
tread. The significance of the item for our purposes is that the S receives
no assistance in going upstairs, not only from the motor standpoint, but
more particularly with reference to the responsibilities involved as to safety
Locomotion
1.37
and also as to the increasing range of the environment and the consequent
reduction of supervision in that environment. It is to be assumed that the
stairs are of appreciable length, say a minimum of five or ten treads (for
porch stairs). In the case of one-story abodes, going up and down porch
steps alone may be taken as equivalent success. Here the number of steps
would be smaller, but the hazards presumably somewhat greater than from
first to second floor.
Item 45. (LA 3.23) Walks downstairs one step per tread.
Walking- downstairs is
both more difficult and more
hazardous than walking up-
stairs. The motor difficulty is
increased and the social com-
petence assured by the re-
quirement that the S employ
one step per tread.
This performance ma-
tures normatively for all
but a few subjects be-
tween the third and fifth
years of life. The mean
M-F difference is .25
years in favor of the
boys, CR .50. The mean
total norm is 3.23 years,
SD 1.07.
The feeble-minded S's
show an advantage of
1.03 years, CR 2.24, over
the normative S's in SA
versus LA intervals. The
delay in feeble-minded
performance at S A 3-4 is
not readily explainable.
7^
%
f^
?,1-
~^/
r
/
x-F
/
r-
'7"
-.'
f/
Item
45
/
/
0°^
LA(
1 ^
non
Tia!
s
1
5
5...
PL!
JS
7^
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7
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1 45
Iff
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1
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LA (norma! tot.)
SA ( FM tot )
M:
F:
D:
Item 45:
Med. Mean
3.30 3.10
3.77 3.35
-.25
Walks downstairs one step per tread.
SD CR Med. Mean
1.05
1.07
.50
N
FM
D
3.61
1.50
3.23
2.20
1.03
SD
1.07
1.70
vis
2.24
138
Item Specification
The item is satisfied if the S freely walks downstairs without help and
without protection taking one step per tread. If the S habitually takes two
steps per tread with consistent safety not requiring oversight, plus scoring
may not be allowed. (Two steps per tread appears to be an intermediate
stage for this item which did not yield satisfactory scoring on the criterion
of habitual performance over a sufficiently protracted time period.) He may
hold to the banister or wall, but not to a person.
As for other items, the performances on this item and
Item 32 should be accustomed rather than infrequent but may-
be confined to familiar environments. We may note again that
going downstairs two steps per tread seldom is accompanied
by independent assurance of safety. Running or jumping in
this performance (not to mention sliding down banisters) are
of course later embellishments.
Item 53. (LA 4.70) Goes about neighborhood unattended.
This is an extension of Item 29, with responsibility ex-
tended to larger and more varied areas. Success on this item
reduces the need for immediate supervision by elders and ex-
pands both the geographic limits and the social variables within
which the S is responsible for his own movements.
%
PLl
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
JS
^/
d
/
,•'
; j
f
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ten
53
/
ten
53
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rrl
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hr?
SA( FMtot )"
F:
Item 53:
Goes about neighborhood unattended.
Med. Mean
8D
CR
Med. Mean
8D
5.1© 4.95
1.03
N : 4.93 4.70
1.09
4.77 4.45
1.08
FM: 4.08 4.58
1.95
.50
1.00
D : .12
CB
.23
Performance on this item shows fairly rapid onset during the fourth
to seventh years of life for the normative S's. The mean M-F difference is
.50 years in favor of the girls, CR 1.00. The mean total norm is 4.70
years, SD 1.09.
Locomotion 139
Maturation in this item for the feeble-minded S's in SA groups shows
earlier onset but individually delayed completion (with consequently larger
SD) than for the normal S's. The mean N-FM difference is .12 years in
favor of the feeble-minded, CR .23. This result may be influenced positively
by the more advanced life ages of the feeble-minded and negatively by the
regimented (institutional) restraints due to the social hazards involved.
For purposes of scoring, the range of locomotion may be restricted as
to areas or deadlines; also the S receives credit even though he might be
required to be accoimtable for his probable whereabouts or activities. Thus,
the S might be warned against crossing streets or going in particular direc-
tions because of the dangers involved, but would be relatively free from
supervision within a limited area outside his own yard. The actual
distances traversed need not be great, but require some interpretation
in relation to the nature of the environment. Thus, in a city or large
town this item is satisfied if the S goes about within the area of his
own block, whereas in more open districts the reasonable limits might
be farther removed. In either case, the area is to be thought of as such
that the S is within relatively easy access or "on call" and presumably
would not be removed from supervision for long- or indefinite periods.
This item, like the other locomotion items, is of course
somewhat influenced by the conduct or disposition of the S,
since responsibilities in these directions might serve to limit
successful performance. Throughout the Scale we are not con-
cerned with conduct directly, but if conduct limits the S's re-
sponsibility as one aspect of competence, this is presumed to
be reflected in the degree of independence he might exercise
or be allowed in particular activities. Similarly, specific dangers
in a particular environment should be evaluated at the dis-
cretion of the examiner.
Note that whereas boys might be expected to excel girls
in this item the reverse is true (by a small and statistically
unreliable difference). This suggests that whereas boys are
more venturesome, their initiative may outrun their social
discretion, and vice versa for the girls.
In institutional environments "neighborhood" must be de-
fined locally according to circumstances and should constitute
a practical equivalent to its extra-institutional concept in terms
of the first increase of "bounds" beyond Item 29 yet prior to
Item 61. Note also that institutional areas of whatever extent
presumably afford continuous general as well as special over-
sight of greater or less degree. However, the regimented
restraints of institutional environments should not be too
superficially disparaged by the unsophisticated examiner, for
institutional confinement is evidence per se of difficulties en-
countered in the unrestrained exercise of personal freedom.
Hence both plus F and plus NO scoring while frequently ap-
plicable should be employed with sophisticated candor.
140 Item Specification
Item 61. (LA 5.83) Goes to school unattended.
This item is an obvious exten-
sion of Item 53 and carries
similar implications but larger
scope. "School" here denotes any
relatively specific or familiar
place or area recurrently visited
on the S's own responsibility
outside the immediate neighbor-
hood but less than "home town"
(see Item 77).
The item is satisfied if the S goes either alone or with friends to par-
ticular near-distant familiar points without someone having direct charge
of him (in the sense of being responsible for him). It is presumed that the
S will go appreciably outside the limits indicated in Item 53 but not so far
as in Item 77, and that he either does in fact cross streets and cope with
other (often unforeseen) situations successfully, or has in comparable cir-
cumstances definitely demonstrated his ability for doing so. There^ is the
further assumption as in all locomotion items that the S's conduct is such
as to anticipate no unhappy consequences.
(ncrmal tot)
SA ( FM tot ) '
Item 61:
Goes to
school unattended.
Med.
Mean 8D
CR
Med. Mean
SD
M:
5.41
5.65 .86
N : 5.66 5.83
.98
F:
5.83
6.00 1.06
FM: 6.35 6.75
2.03
D:
-.35
.76
D : -.92
CR
1.78
Locomotion
141
The normative maturation on this item is rapid in the sixth and seventh
years of life. The individual delays in success may represent parental solici-
tude or individual differences in environment, conduct or personality. The
mean M-F difference is .35 years in favor of the boys, CR .76; this is small
in amount as well as low in statistical reliability, suggesting that the haz-
ards for girls are not so great as might at first be assumed. (Note that this
is a reversal of the sex trend for Item 53.) The mean total norm is 5.83
years. SD .98.
The normative S's excel the feeble-minded by a mean N-FM difference
of .92 years, CR 1.78. The relatively large SD for the feeble-minded S's
reflects chiefly individual differences in initiative and responsibility. Among
the feeble-minded of more advanced mental age the social hazards are
increased rather than decreased because greater venturesomeness is not
accompanied by correspondingly greater judgment. Note the reversal of
the N-FM difference for Item 53. This may in part be due to the interpre-
tation of "school" in the institutional environment.
If the S goes to school (or equivalent point) by some
public conveyance, it is assumed that he is responsible for his
own actions from the time he leaves the house (to reach the
conveyance) until he returns, subject of course to such normal
safeguards as might be provided for children in general. The
item therefore involves going back and forth more or less
frequently to some familiar place relatively apart from the
home environment and relatively independent of supervision.
Item 77. (LA 9.43) Goes about home totem frei
This item is inter-
mediate between
Items 61 and 92. It
involves an extension
of the environment
to rather remote
points of the home
district, that is, be-
yond the familiar
daily surroundings
and to other than
specific points.
142
Item Specification
Such minor excursions may be made either alone or with friends, but
the S is free from both immediate and remote supervision. However, he
may still be somewhat restricted as to areas or deadlines, but these are
such as to permit him to go beyond easy call, and the time involved in
the movements is extended to perhaps a half-day or longer. There is also
an assumption that the parents or others who may be responsible for the
& do not feel unduly concerned for his safety in the sense of imposing
checks on his movements.
The normative standardization shows fairly smooth progression ex-
cept for a marked lapse jor both sexes at LA 10-11. The mean M-F difference
is .15 years in favor of the ffirls, CR .21. The mean total norm is 9.43
years, SD 1,55. The distributions are "awkward" (p. 363) for both sexes
and for the total N, with correspondingly dubious medians.
The feeble-minded S's show a consistent progression in SA groups up
to SA 11-12 which is the highest SA group for which at least ten sub-
jects of each sex were available in the institutional population from
which these subjects were obtained. (This is the first item thus far
discussed which does not approximate maturational completion for the
feeble-minded S's.) Hence a comparison of either mean or median N-FM
differences is not possible. The average decile difference (interpolated
from unsmoothed data) from 0 to 40 percentile inclusive is about 1.5
years in favor of the normal S's, How^ever, the curves are divergent
rather than parallel with an average decile increment of difference of
about .4 years (estimated from the divergent slopes of the curves). The
comparative 40-percentile difference is about 2.3 years (disregarding the
normative lapse at LA 10-11). The estimated median difference is 2.75
years. The reliabilities of these differences (based on approximate slopes)
cannot be satisfactorialy estimated.
It is interesting to compare the fragmentary data (see p. 73) on
this item beyond SA 11-12 with the corresponding data for Item 86
(p. 129). These data for Item 77 are as follows: 92,5 per cent passes
at SA 12 (N = 15), 92.5 per cent at SA 13 (S = 7). 83 per cent at
SA 14 (N = 6), lOO per cent at SA 15 (N = 4) and at SA 16 (N= 5).
However, because of environmental restrictions many of these upper plus
scores are based on
"+ NO" and "+ F" per-
formances within the
range of otherwise "-1-"
scores (as was also the
case below SA 12 for all
FM S's except one).
When these data are
compared with those for
Item 86 the curves be-
come fairly comparable
at SA 12 and beyond.
However, the statistical
calculations for Item 77
are unwarranted in view
of the smaller number of
S's who represent super-
ior attainment.
%
PLl
100
so
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
JS
/
/
Iter
)77
/
Iteir
77
/
1 \
1
J\
/
/
F--
~^l
1
•
/•
1
—
-M
N-
/
r
i
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.J
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/
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norr
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1 1
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Item 77: Goes
ahout
home
town freely.
Med. Mean SD
CR
Med. Mean
8D
M:
9.88? 9.50 1.54
N :
10.01? 9.43
1.55
F:
9.98? 9.35 1.56
FM:
.
.
D:
.15
.21
D :
-
CB
Locomotion 143
The actual distance traversed in satisfying this item may
be relatively great or small, dependent upon the complexity of
the environment. Thus in a large city, the item would be satisfied
if the S goes about only certain sections of his home town rather
than the entire city, whereas in the rural district the S may go
about the remote neighborhood. In either case he might even be
accompanied to "town," but once there would be on his own
responsibility. The word "town" is therefore to be construed
as an extension of the environment to include unfamiliar places
not too distant necessarily in point of mileage, but remote in
the sense of removing him from the usual early surroundings
and introducing him to non-specific yet not too strange areas
and to unforeseen but not too specific contingencies.
The absence of appreciable sex difference on this and later
locomotion items is noteworthy considering the presumptively
greater hazards for girls approaching and during adolescence.
So also is the lapse in performance for both sexes on this item
at LA 10-11. That this (and minor lapses on other items) is not
due to significant differences in native ability in the successive
LA samples is evident from lack of consistent lapses on other
items for adjacent LA groups.
Item 92. (LA 15.85) Goes to nearby places alone.
This item is intermediate between Items 77 and 96. It re-
veals more extended distances travelled, a lesser degree of famil-
iarity with the remote environment, a longer time period (for
distance traversed) , more complicated arrangements to be made,
greater responsibility involved, broader freedom of action, and
greater resourcefulness in meeting contingencies. Again depend-
able conduct must be construed as influencing the scoring since
limitations in these regards will naturally reduce the competence
with which the item is fulfilled.
To "pass" the item the S more or less frequently and readily goes be-
yond the limits of his "home town" (as defined in Item 77) as occasioim
warrants. It is rather difficult to set limits as to the distances travelled,
since these will be determined in part by the complexity of the environment
and the modes of transportation available. Thus, going to strange or
remote portions of a large city may be construed as equivalent to going to
a somewhat distant but familiar town, or to one perhaps nearer but less
familiar or requiring a greater degree of resourcefulness. While on such
"trips" the S is responsible for arrangements and contingencies, not merely
following explicit directions or going to and from familiar points. If accom-
panied he is still responsible for his own actions. The occasions may be
major or minor, and the S may or may not "have permission" or give
notice of his intentions. In short, his social movements are relatively un-
hampered, but their scope is still mildly restricted.
144
Item Specification
The normative S's show fairly rapid and consistent maturation. The
boys excel the girls; the former reveal a maturational lapse at LA 14 and
the latter at 15. The mean M-F difference is 1.60 years in favor of the boys,
CR 1.65. The mean total norm is 15.85 years, SD 2.20.
The feeble-minded sub-
jects show no successes
on this item up to SA
11-12, the upper limit of
grouped subjects avail-
able. Hence the nonna-
tive comparison is not
possible. Some beyond
SA 11-12 do succeed or
obtain plus F or plus
NO scores, but the data
are too meaner for pre-
sentation. Conceivably,
the feeble-minded at
largre get into more or
less trouble when per-
forming this item.
%
PLl
IS
KKp
SO
70
[ten
1 92
i
/
1
/
1
t
/
1
1
Ift
/
1
M
f\
/
r
/
/
30
M-
i
r
s/
— F
20
1
1 \
1
t
10
1
1
^U
m^
^..
1
-•
1
la
La(
norr
± 13 U 15 Iti 1
nal by sex)^
7 18 19 20- ••
Item 92: Goes to nearby places alone.
CR
1.65
Med.
Mean
SD
M:
15.50
15.05
2.14
F:
16.83
16.65
1.96
D:
-1.60
Tot.:
16.23
15.85
2.20
Item 96. (LA 18.05) Goes to distant points alone.
This item represents the
final stage in locomotion and
is to be considered as reveal-
ing substantially complete
responsibility in going nearly
anywhere without limitation.
In other words, the geographi-
cal and social limits contained
in Item 92 are extended to al-
most any environment with
complete responsibility. Pre-
sumably the arrangements re-
quired, the resourcefulness in
meeting dangers and other
details are now beyond need of
any supervision.
Locomotion
145
In this item the movent ents may be to specific or non-specific points.
They may involve greater distance, staying overnight, loss of ready con-
tact with the home environment, broader resourcefulness, more complex
arrangements, more stable conduct, heavier expenditures, and so on. The
item is most easily defined as requiring that the S be unrestricted in his
movements except for the ordinary considerations and courtesies of family
or friendly living. In the case of girls a companion or chaperone may ac-
company the S (as also on Item 92), as a convention or to protect reputa-
tion rather than to assure safety, but in recent years such discretion has
been appreciably relaxed in the U.S. environment.
The normative progression rises
rapidly between LA's 16 and 20
inclusive with a lapse for the boys
at LA 18 (or anticipatory peak at
LA 17). The mean M-F difference
is .60 years in favor of the boys,
CR .88. The mean total norm is
18.05 years, SD 1.47.
Comment on the feeble-minded
subjects is the same as for Item
92.
ttilil^'u \1 18 IS 20 21.
LA (normal by sex)"^
Item 96:
Goes to distant poir
Med. Mean SD
M:
17.96? 17.75 1.52
F:
18.75 18.35 1.36
D:
-.60
Tot.:
18.72 18.05 1.47
CB
.88
Summary. The items in this category afford an example of
the manner in which a variety of performances reveal a pro-
gressive extension of substantially the same area of behavior.
The expanding horizon, from the point of view^ of social getting
about, demands increasing responsibility in personal conduct,
conformable behavior, modes of transportation, expenditures,
resourcefulness, cautions, and so on. As these items increase in
difficulty their relation to other items of the Scale is readily
apparent. The category extends from early infancy to early
adulthood and in itself so comprehensively represents successive
degrees of social competence that it might almost be used alone
as a brief method of measuring social maturation. In general
this category includes one of the most obvious and satisfactory
146 Item Specification
series of items of the Scale as a whole, reflecting as it does more
than other categories the increasing complexity in extent of
social performance and the involvement of other forms of social
competence.
The particular items which have been placed in this cate-
gory are designed to emphasize their distinctive value for sep-
arate appraisal. But prerequisite success on certain stages of
locomotion is implicitly assumed for many item performances in
other categories.
There is some presumption, regarding which we have no
systematic evidence, that there might be some difference in
locomotion items in relation to social class or according to the
general environm.ent as rural or urban.
This category readily illustrates the interview principle of
proceeding from the general to the particular. From "To what
extent does the S go about" to "Where does he go" and "What
or how does he manage" and then to specific details is readily
obvious.
It might at first be supposed that sex diflferences would
affect performance on these items. But the largest normative
sex difference is only 1.60 years (Item 92). This D is only one-
tenth of its base, and its CR is only 1.65. All other mean M-F
differences are below .61 years, and all other CR's are below
1.01. The SD's of the sex distributions are also small and seem
not to be seriously affected by the onset of adolescence for either
sex.
The feeble-minded comparisons show only Item 32 with
high CR (4.75) . The mean N-FM difference for this item is only
.97 years (in favor of the feeble-minded) but this is numerically
more than its base (.78 years) . Item 45 shows a mean difference
of 1.03 years (half of its base) , in favor of the feeble-minded,
with CR 2.24. All other N-FM comparisons show numerically
low and statistically unreliable differences. Three of them (Items
77, 92 and 96) do not yield central tendencies for the feeble-
minded subjects because of insufRcient subjects beyond SA 11-12
and the relative difficulties of these items for FM S's. Item 77
yields an estim.ated median difference of 2.75 years (one quarter
of its base) in favor of the normal subjects with inferentially
high reliability.
The marked and progressively divergent comparative re-
tardation for the feeble-minded subjects on the more advanced
locomotion items is only partly due to institutional restraint. As
a foster parent the institution imposes such restrictions on the
Locomotion
147
m
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1
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1
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■xs
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148 Item Specification
presumption that because of the limited social discretion certain
degrees of locomotion have not previously been performed with
habitual success or presumably now would not be successfully
performed if regimentation were not imposed.
Note that some (institutionalized) feeble-minded S's pass
each item, and the number (proportion) increases consistently
with SA progression. This indicates that envir'onmental re-
straint becomes relaxed when performance warrants, and this
principle applies to all items of the Scale. Moreover, "elopement"
from the institution is quite simple (although of course by vari-
ous means discouraged), and is indeed successfully accomplished
in a certain num.ber of borderline cases. The events usually ex-
perienced on such absences only confirm the need for restrictions
on such movements. Indeed, the general willingness with which
such restrictions are ordinarily accepted by the feeble-minded
is one significant indication of the mental deficiency. Hence plus
F and plus NO scoring should be employed skeptically and ob-
jectively with handicapped S's not only in this category but in
others where like considerations obtain.
The actual NO and F scores are found in Table 10. There
are few such scores for the normative S's on any item, and few
for the feeble-minded on the lower items. Beyond Item 45 the
number of +N0 and —NO scores increase and then decrease
(with a few +F scores on Item 61). Items 61 and 77 show the
largest number of NO scores, and these occur in the upper SA
group. Many of them occur within the range of otherwise minus
scores. Hence environmental restraint, while present, has not
seriously aifected these results.
Two items in the Self-Direction category, namely Item 93
(Goes out unsupervised daytime) and Item 99 (Goes out nights
unrestricted), are closely related to the Locomotion categorj^.
Other Self -Direction items, such as Item 94 (Has own spending
money). Item 101 (Assumes personal responsibility), and Item
98 (Has a job or continues schooling) have other relations to
Locomotion. Such correlation of items in general, and the se-
quences of items across categories, already has been or will be
clarified elsewhere.
Occupation 149
Occupation
So little makes him happy when he's young;
A dog, a sled, a ball and bat, a gun,
A game to play or e'en a race to run.
But youth has vanished as a tale that's
told;
He thrills not now, save in the quest of
gold;
So little makes him happy when he's old. —The Kalends
For most people social competence means the degree of
occupational activity or the kind of productive v^^ork in which
a person is typically engaged. This is usually evaluated in terms
of useful or gainful employment. But v^e have already observed
that total social competence also involves the extent to v^^hich
the individual looks after his immediate personal needs, and
moves about in his social and geographical environment; v/e
shall see later hov^ social competence also includes other kinds
of activity.
Successful use of one's time at any age is clearly related to
other aspects of social maturation since these are inevitably
involved in such pursuits. Thus, in the successive stages of
occupational activity, we observe that self-help, locomotion,
self-direction, communication and social participation are
intimately interwoven, and without their harmonious coordina-
tion the successful expansion of occupational activities would
be seriously restricted.
Occupational engrossments thus broadly conceived reveal
a genetic evolution, such as (1) concentration on playful activity
in infancy, (2) helping at minor tasks in early childhood, (3)
engaging in exploratory creative pursuits in early adolescence,
(4) gainfully (perhaps sporadically) working for others in late
adolescence, (5) continuous productive employment in the adult
years, and (6) finally the employment or supervision of others.
In treating this category, therefore, we are concerned not merely
with useful work, but with all the ontogenetic stages of voca-
tional engagements, including prevocational and avocational
absorption. Moreover, the mastery of scholastic and manual arts
in the late grammar grades may be taken as equivalent to the
novice levels of gainful work, while attendance at high school
and college may substitute for apprentice or junior levels of
skilled trades, business, the arts and professions. Similarly,
time devoted to hobbies constitutes recreational occupation
which corresponds to, or may even become, useful productivity
or gainful employment.
150 Item Specification
For present purposes we must not be misled by the result-
ing income or prestige alone. Nor dare we become too involved
in the details of occupational skills or the complexities of busi-
ness and professional work. We must avoid also the adventitious
nature of employment as reflected in personal, economic or in-
dustrial contingencies.
Our principal concern here, as in other categories and items,
is with the extent to which occupational pursuits reflect per-
sonal independence, individual responsibility, social adjustment,
specific usefulness or general self-sufficiency. Some forms of
work involve a high degree of self -direction and resourcefulness
but relatively little skill, whereas in other work skill may be
at a premium and responsibility at a minimum. Likewise some
relatively simple occupations may yield large returns in satisfac-
tion, fame or fortune, while others more complex may com-
mand few such emoluments. Not only skill, effort, output and
remuneration, but also related conduct, amount of supervi-
sion required, degree of responsibility involved, resourcefulness,
adaptation, educational accompaniments, and the like must be
considered. So conceived, this category extends throughout the
entire range of life age from early infancy to late adulthood,
and evolves from childish play to the highly skilled arts and
professions, or from simple creative interests to expert trades,
manufacture and commerce.
The 22 items in this category extend from the first year to
the superior adult reaches of the Scale. They are rather evenly
distributed except that seven items are above the average adult
score (XXV+ ) . There are 3 items at Year I, 2 at II and at VIII,
and 1 each at 0, III, IV, V, X, XI, XII-XV, and XVIII-XX.
Some serial groupings are apparent such as self-occupation
(Items 7, 19, 22, 36, 43, 55, 57, 107), helpful tasks (Items 24,
48, 72, 89), self -initiated work (Items 71, 80, 82, 108, 116),
progressive levels of adult productivity (Items 98, 106, 111, 113,
114).
Item 7. (LA .43) Occupies self unattended.
An early stage of occupational activity is seen when the
child begins to amuse himself. This practicable self-sufficiency
is found in those brief periods of absorbed attention when the
child's interest is stimulated and held by the exploitation of
simple objects. When so engaged, the child is active rather than
passive, and exercises practical interest in the manipulation of
Occupation
151
simple objects and the exploration of their uses or properties.
He does sc during what are for him extended periods of time,
say a quarter hour or longer, without need of attention or assist-
ance. In other words, the child can be left to himself for brief
periods during which he is not demanding attention, but is look-
ing after his spontaneous desire to be actively engaged at some-
thing.
The item is satisfied if the S frequently plays with simple objects or
engages in any form of activity which is not harmful or destructive, for
brief periods, say a quarter hour or longer, without need of oversight. The
item is not satisfied if these activities are simply mischievous or of such
character that the S requires watching, for even at this early stage this
activity should reflect such a degree of responsibility that personal attend-
ance on his actions is not continuously required when the child is not rest-
ing.
Half of the normative S's pass
this item in the first year of life
and all in the second year and
thereafter. The mean M-F differ-
ence is .05 years in favor of the
girls. The mean total norm is .43
years.
The feeble-minded S's show de-
layed maturation in SA groups
compared with the normative LA
intervals in spite of their mean life
age advantage of about 15 years.
The mean SA norm is 1.05 years,
SD .60. The mean N-FM difference
is .62 years.
%
/
F-
/
j
«-M
J
i
Itea
I 7
0
i \
\ i
L..
LA (normal by sex)'i^
Item 7: Occupies self unattended.
Med. Mean SD CR Med. Mean
M: .41 .45 - N : .37 .43
F: .33 .40 - FM: 1.05 1.05
D: .05 - D : -.62
FMtot
SD
CR
.60
We may observe here what we shall return to later, namely,
that in self -initiated occupational and social participation activ-
ities the feeble-minded are definitely inferior to normals of the
same general degree of ontogenetic development. This is in spite
of persistent stimulation from others, for even if such stimula-
tion is effective the pursuits are not self -sustained. This confirms
the common observation regarding the inertia, or low energy
drive, or low-motivated complacency so characteristic of mental
defectives and which extends even to the so-called subcultural
normal adult. .
152
Item Specification
Item 19. (LA 1.10) Marks ivith pencil or crayon.
This is an extension of Item 7 involving- more specific skill,
more specialized concentration to a particular activity, more
purposeful employment of materials, a more permanent out-
come, and a more advanced stage of motor coordination. In
formulating the item we have employed the use of pencil or
crayon on the assumption that these are rather more generally
available than other specific objects. Moreover, the motor skill
involved is also somewhat more specific and the item can there-
fore be held within a definite compass. However, this item should
not be construed literally but as representative of other equiva-
lent activities, such as stringing beads, or arranging blocks Ir
something more than random fashion, if the environment does
not provide (or permit) pencil or crayon. Hence the item is not
considered as an early stage of the communication category.
The item is satisfied if the S occupies himself for brief periods, say a
quarter-hour or longer, in something more than mere handling of objects,
and does so either spontaneously or on simple suggestion as a means of
self -occupation. Little emphasis is laid on the useful outcome, but the man-
ner of performing the item should be such as not to require supervision,
and this is practically indicated by the fact that the S should not be de-
structive in doing so, since in that case attention and supervision are pre-
sumably necessary. Thus, whether pencil (or crayon) and paper, or beads,
or blocks, are used, the result may be only a form of occupation in respect
to which the operations involved should not require immediate oversight
as to the importunities, difficulties and hazards involved.
This performance matures rap-
idly at LA 1-2 for the normative
S's. The mean M-F difference is .20
years in favor of the boys. The
mean total norm is 1.10 years, SD
.33.
As in the previous item, the
normative S's by LA excel the
feeble-minded by SA. The mean
N-FM difference is .70 years.
1
%
PLl
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
JS
/
/T
t t
-F
f
1
1
F
n
1
FM
M-
N-
j
1
/'
i
1
1
1
Iteji
il9
1
1
Iter
il9
1
/
1
1
J;
LA (normal by 3ex)i^ LA (normal tot) ^
SA( FMtot )^
Med.
Mean
M:
1.00
l.OO
F:
1.13
1.20
D:
-.20
Item 19: Marks xvith pencil or crayon.
SD CR
.34
Med.
Mean
8D
N :
1.06
1.10
.33
FM:
1.88
1.80
-
D :
-.70
CB
Occupation
153
This item seems at first ill-advised because of possible lack
(or prohibition) of materials and the difficulty of evaluating ob-
tainable information. However, although these data reveal no
such anticipated difficulties, they may sometimes be encounter-
ed. And although the item-caption is to be construed as including
similar equivalents, these are not easily formulated. Hence this
item is not wholly satisfactory and may be discarded, or a sub-
stitute prepared, in later revisions of the Scale (see Item 22).
Item 22, (LA 1.20) Transfers objects.
A characteristic and rela-
tively spontaneous form of
self -occupation is found in the
child's inclination to move ob-
jects from place to place in
a more or less purposeful,
though not necessarily useful,
manner. This is seen in filling
and emptying receptacles,
pouring from one vessel to
another, arranging random ob-
jects in some definite pattern
or grouping, employing one
object as a means of transferring another, and so on. In its
most useful form the S may do this as a simple form of helping
another person by taking specific objects as indicated and "mov-
ing" them to specifically indicated locations.
This performance appears nor-
matively in the second year of life.
The mean M-F difference is .10
years in favor of the girls. The
mean total norm is 1.20 years.
Again the normative S's excel
the feeble-minded. The mean N-FM
difference is .65 years.
PU
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
JS
L
,•-'
■^
N
y
1
/
H-
-FIV
/
f
»
1
1
1
1
1
Iter
1 22
'
_
LA (itormal by sex)^
LA (normal tot
SA ( FM tot
Item
22: Transfers objects.
Med.
Mean 8D
CR Med.
Mean SD
M:
1.17
1.25
N : 1.13
1.20
F:
1.09
1.15
FM: 1.83
1.85 .67
D:
.10
D :
-.65
CR
154
Item Specification
The item is satisfied if these activities are either purposeful or playful
in character, but they are to be performed in such a manner as not to
require immediate supervision and assistance. The periods of such pre-
occupation are generally longer and more frequent than for Item 19. The
activity may be self -initiated or suggested but is maintained without con-
tinued surveillance. Purpose or outcome may include arranging objects in
some formal pattern or apparent order.
On a priori grounds this item is preferable to Item 19, al-
though the data for both items are closely similar. Hence if
bead-stringing and block patterns are employed (instead of
marking with pencil or crayon) for Item 19, these should be
slightly more simple than for Item 22 and the same activities
should not be used for both items.
Item 24. (LA 1.38) Fetches or carries farrJUar objt ts.
Item 22 quickly develops into Item 24, in consequence oi v. h we find
the S employed in some small measure as a help^^r in perfo .n. < simple
errands on request or by anticipation, such as bnngin :, rcmevjng or
transferring objects to or from nearby places, or carrying s pie m^.^sa^es
to or from nearby persons. Such performances need not be -.^ ed
continuously or for protracted periods at a time, but should be con- it'v
even though intermittently evident.
Nonnative success for this ac-
tivity appears between LA's 1-3.
The mean M-F difference is .25
years in favor of the boys. The
mean total norm is 1.38 years.
The normative S's surpass the
feeble-minded by a mean N-FM
difference of .37 years. This differ-
ence is seen as more significant in
direction than it is in amount or
reliability when the advantage to
the feeble-minded S*s of about 15
years of age and the associated
stimulation from training are taken
into account.
0 i 2 3 4...
LA (normal by sex)^
) 1 2 3 ,
LA (normal tot)
SA ( FMtot )
M:
F:
D:
Item 24:
Med. Mean
1.17
1.50
1.25
1.50
-.25
Fetches or carries familiar objects.
8D CB Med. Mean
N :
FM:
D :
1.30
1.81
1.38
1.75
-.37
SD
.45
CR
Occupation
155
Item 36. (LA 2.03) Initiates own play activities.
An appreciably higher
stage of development is seen
when the S initiates his own
play activities and when these
are of a somewhat more com-
plex nature than those pre-
viously described. Thus, the S
now finds things to do for
himself without immediate or
direct suggestion, although
indirect suggestions, hints or
the situation itself might be
the stimulus to such pursuits.
The activities themselves may be relatively simple, such as drawimg
or "coloring in" with pencil or crayon, building with blocks, dressing dolls,
looking (by himself) at books or pictures. While so engaged the S requires
no "looking after" and consequently is presumed not to be mischievous or
destructive or to engage in pursuits which might be harmful or dangerous.
In this, as in other items, there is a generalized increase not only in the
personal responsibility exercised by the S, but also in the complexity of the
occupational activity itself (as compared with Items 7 and 19).
Successful normative
performance appears
rapidly and consistently
between LA's 1-4. The
mean M-F difference is
.25 years in favor of the
boys, CR .64. The mean
total norm is 2.03 years,
SD .83.
The feeble-minded pro-
fession in SA groups
closely corresponds to
■ihe normative LA curve
with a mean N-FM dif-
ference of .30 years in
favor of the normal S's,
CR 1.19.
M:
F:
D:
Med.
1.83
2.06
Iteim
Mean
1.90
2.15
-.25
36:
LA (normal by sex)**
PLl
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
rs
r
<a-
*"•'
f
N-
Ji
■7^
/i
iw
■FM
/
1
1
/'
/'
tem
36
y
/
y
9*^
I
I
J
I
> i
>...
LA (normal tot)
.78
.86
Initiates own play
CR
SA ( FM tot
activities.
.64
N
FM
D
Med.
1.94
2.23
Mean
2.03
2.33
-.30
SD
.83
.73
CR
1.19
Item 43. (LA 2.88) Cuts with scissors.
Some of the child's play is inevitably (though often unwit-
156
Item Specification
tingly) destructive. This item reflects a purposive direction of
such tendencies into constructive channels. However, the item
is not altogether satisfactory because of the specific responsi-
bility and skill required, and because some environments do not
afford (or permit) adequate opportunity.
To pass this item the S uses blunt scissors for cutting paper or cloth.
He does this as either purposive or playful occupation with safety to him-
self and without destructive consequences, but in view of the hazards
and temptations involved, there may be some intermittent supervision of
the activity. The skills involved are of a higher order than those in the
previous items, and the hazards somewhat greater; the outcome need not,
but may be, useful. Cutting with a knife as in whittling, or the use of
equivalent tools involving equivalent skill and hazards (e.g., painting with
water colors), might be substituted for use of scissors, but these are gen-
erally more difiBcuIt and not readily defined.
Normative success ap-
pears smoothly between
LA's 1-5. The mean M-F
difference is .15 years in
favor of the girls, CR .30.
The mean total norm is
2.88 years, SD 1.06.
The feeble-minded in
SA g^'oups show delayed
success but reach the
normative performance
at SA 4-5. The mean
N-FM difference is .77
years, CR 2.68.
%
//
f
,-'
'/
F-i
■A
/
'-
-M
f
7
//
y
;
'
[ten
43
/
rf<
1
0*
LA (
f' i
nori
nali
xH
). . .
0^ 2^3 4
LA (normal tot)
SA ( FM tot ) '
M:
F:
D:
Med.
2.83
2.50
Item 43: Cuts vnth scissors.
Mean 8D CR Med.
2.95
2.80
.15
1.17
.94
.30
N :
FM:
D :
2.67
3.50
Mean
2.88
3.65
-.77
-SD
1.06
.67
CR
2.68
Although this item, like Item 19 and perhaps Item 55, may
seem restricted by some environmental circumstances, the con-
sistent data for both normative and feeble-minded S's suggest
that this is not really the case except as environmental control
may retard but not prevent outcome. However, the likelihood of
limited opportunity must be considered. In such instances plus
NO scoring may be resorted to.
Occupation
157
Item 48. (LA 3.55) Helps at little household tasks.
This is an extension of
Item 24 involving more diffi-
cult operations, more persist-
ent application, wider range
of performances, more useful
outcome, and higher degree of
responsibility for the S. These
tasks may be more or less
equivalent to serious play, but
they have a utilitarian value
in the assistance they give to
others.
The item is defined as helping in small ways such as running errands
around the house, picking up or setting things to rights, helping to some
extent in setting or clearing the table, feeding pets, and being generally
useful in minor domestic ways. Equivalent operations may be done outside
the house; since such tasks will usually be more diflScult and less intrinsi-
cally interesting at this level they may be scored accordingly within the
intent of the item. The S is not required to perform the tasks routinely
(regularly) but rather on request or suggestion. He will usually show inter-
mittent initiative or spontaneity rather than sustained reliability.
The normative matura-
tion is smooth and rapid
between LA's 2-6 years.
The mean M-F difference
is .30 years in favor of
the girls, OR .63. The
mean total norm is 3.55
years, SD 1.03.
The feeble-minded
closely approximate the
normative successes in
SA versus LA intervals.
The mean N-FM differ-
ence is .15 years in favor
of the feeble-minded, CR
.49.
8 ' 2 ,3 i 5 6~
LA (normal tot)
SA ( FM tot. )
Med.
Mean
8D
M:
3.39
3.70
1.11
F:
3.28
3.40
.93
D:
.30
Item 48: Helps at little household tasks.
CR Med. Mean
.63
N
FM
D
3.33
3.21
3.55
3.40
.15
8D
1.03
.87
CR
.49
Many S's show sporadic success on this item which is con-
sequently sometimes difficult to evaluate. The child's interest or
initiative, the adult's pressures for either help or training, the
"nuisance" rather than assistance value of such "help" may
prove confusing for precise scoring. Such saltatory successes
158
Item Specification
may usually be considered as emerg-ent behavior and scored ac-
cordingly. NO scoring as restricted opportunity or limited occa-
sion (need or necessity) should therefore be used sparingly.
Item 55. (LA 5.13) Uses pencil or crayon for drawing.
This is a refinement of
Item 19, being also to some ex-
tent present in Item 36. Here
the product is more "mature"
and more realistically identi-
fiable.
Normative success is smoothly apparent between LA's 4-7. The mean
M-F difference is .55 years in favor of the boys, CR 1.41. The mean total
norm is 5.13 years, SD .88.
The feeble-minded show similar onset but delayed fruition as com-
pared with the normative S's. The mean N-FM difference is .82 years in
favor of the normative S's, CR 1.88. This may to some extent be explained
by loss of interest on the part of the older feeble-minded subjects in the
more advanced SA groups.
%
PU
100
90
80
JS
r
/
/
,
,*'
M-
J
/
J
^->
/
•'
^*
I
r
F
f
/
/
FM
■
60
50
40
30
20
10
/
•
/
l
1
1
/
1
1
/
.
•
\
[ten
55
/
Iter
» 55
/
^ 1
J
/
/
«•
— -<
r^
/*
«.
^•i
■:/
0« ,
LA(
nor
nail
•y w
'xW
>
\ \
\'-\
i'-'l
d'l
1...
1
LA (
nori
w
»t)
€
H
H
1
I
5-1
i.t:
Item 55:
Use
Med. Mean
8D
M:
4.86 4.85
.80
F:
5.17 5.40
.87
D;
-.55
Uses pencil or crayon for drawing.
CR Med. Mean
1-41
N
FM
D
5.02
5.92
5.13
5.95
-.82
8D
.88
1.69
CR
1.88
Occupation
159
Successful performance is indicated if the S produces readily recog-
nizable outlines of familiar objects such as a man, house, tree, animal or
scene with materials equivalent to paper and pencil. In lieu of actual draw-
ings successful detailed or di£Ferential coloring with crayons or paints may
be credited. Another acceptable equivalent is the modelling of objects with
pSastics such as clay, wet sand or plasticine. In such equivalents, and in
use of water colors, finger painting and the like, the S should not be too
"messy" and should not require "cleaning up after."
Some envircmnents discourage the use of pencils or crayons
at this early stage because of apprehension regarding the haz-
ards or annoyances attending such use. But here as in similar
situations such restrictions may often (though not alv/ays) be
well advised because the S may not be maturely trustworthy.
Hence NO scoring should not be resorted to uncritically.
Item 57. (LA 5.13) Uses skates, sled, wagon.
This item might better
have been captioned "Engages
in hazardous play" since it is
designed to represent those
vigorous forms of recreation
which involve appreciable
childish risks. Hence the per-
formances involved are to be
considered more general than
the caption suggests. While
engaged in such play, the in-
dividual is presumed to show
due care for the attendant
dangers. The item is to some extent alternative for Item 55
on the part of children more actively inclined, and is of the same
mean difficulty.
The item is satisfied if the S plays on or with such "locomotor aids"
as skates, stilts, scooter, velocipede and like "vehicles" outside his own
yard but within a more or less restricted neighborhood area, and does so
with due caution. Equivalent forms of relatively hazardous piay may be in-
cluded, such as climbing trees, skipping rope, use of playground apparatus.,
and so on. While the S may have an occasional accident, he should be con-
sidered generally "safe-worthy" in respect to the ordinary risks likely to
be encountered.
The normative curves show rapid progression between LA's 3-6 with
some scattered individual delayed success at LA's 7-9. The mean M-F dif-
ference is .15 years in favor of the boys, OR .23. The mean total norm is
5.13 years, SD 1.39.
The feeble-minded S's show retarded accomplishment and some minor
lapses in SA versus normative LA groups. The mean N-FM difference is
1.55 years in favor of the normal S's, OR 2.67. The SD for the feeble-
minded subjects is nearly twice that for the normals. These differences
may reflect a specific influence of the more advanced life ages of the feeble-
minded S's as cessation of such activities without permitting plus F scor-
ing or equivalent substitute pursuits.
160
Item Specification
%
/
Q
/
Iten
i57
/
/
f
/;
1
1
j
1
-F
M-
7 '
• -
/ /
7
/
,/
1) ,
l' ■
i
\
II
)
>
\ \
\ \
> 1
0 1
1...
100-
M:
F:
D:
(normal by sex)*
Med.
4.70
5.50
Item 57:
Mean
s.es
5.20
-.15
SB
1.29
1.47
LA (normal tot)
SA ( FM tot )^'
XJses skates, sled, wagon,
CR Med. Mean
10 II.
.23
N
FM
D
5.10
7.11
5.13
6.68
-1.55
SD
1.39
2.12
CR
2.67
Note that the purpose of this item is to assess trustworthi-
ness at vigorous play when absorbed attention to the means may
prove hazardous through relaxation of vigilance. It is this ob-
servance of safety in the face of distraction that is of special
importance. Hence the kind and variety of play are critical 1>o
the item. In short, the item is somewhat misleading if restricted
to mere manipulation of some play vehicle without regard for
the risks attending its use.
Item 71. (LA 8.50)
Uses tools or utensils.
During the preschool
years the S may have pounded
with a mallet or hammer and
may have used various impro-
vised crude utensils for play.
In later childhood he employs
simple tools with some discre-
tion and skill for useful or
creative ends. These ordinar-
ily include the purposeful use
of a few construction tools
such as hammer, saw or screw
driver; kitchen, household or
sewing utensils; and perhaps
garden tools such as rake and
Occupation
161
shovel. Sex differences are not sharply distinct, although there
is some tendency toward preferential masculine or feminine
interests.
This item is passed if such tools or utensils are employed for som«
practical purpose such as repairing or making simple objects, sewing, cook-
ing or gardening. The S is presumed to have some practical knowledge and
skill in the simple use of these articles even though the resulting product
or practical outcome may be relatively crude.
The normative curves progress rather smoothly between LA's 6-12,
with a lapse at LA 8 for the boys, and a "pause" at LA 9 for the girls.
The mean M-F difference is 1.10 years in favor of the boys, CR 1.38. (Sex
difference in kinds of tools is allowed for to some extent in the alternatives
of the definition.) The mean total norm is 8.50 years, SD 1.78.
The feeble-minded S's show earlier onset in SA versus normative LA
groups, but delayed completion of maturation. The SA validation curve
ceases at LA 11-12 with 95 per cent of the S's successful. As for Item 86
(p. 129) no serious error is introduced by assuming complete success at
SA 12-13 and thereafter (as is actually the case for the fragmentary data
beyond SA 11-12). If this is done, the mean N-FM difference becomes .85
years in favor of the feeble-minded, CR 1.44. Part of the delay in final
maturation for the feeble-minded subjects is possibly due to restricted
"occasion for" this performance in relation to the advanced age of many
of these subjects.
%
PLl
100
iS
~
V
A
\^
/.-
''
f»
^
M
/
•"
80
70
61)
W
/
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1
&-
F
i
/
N
^
,
/
h
1
,
1
/
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uo
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,
tk
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ti71
-•'
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n71
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ia
<
J
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if.
^»
-*^
J
LA
noi
r
ma
b)
1
L
>
i 1
e 1
1 1
i 1
\ 1
1 1
>••■
Hi
nor
mo
i
to
»•».
S
1
a 1
1 t
2 1
i 1
4 1
\...
SA ( FM tot.
Item 71
Ifed. Utan SD
M:
8.02? 7.95 1.66
F:
9.00? 9.05 1.72
D:
-1.10
Uses tools or utensils.
CB
1.38
Med.
Mean
8D
N :
8.61
8.50
1.78
FM:
7.81
7.65*
1.86*
D :
.85
CR
1.44
* 100% assumed at SA 12-13.
162 Item Specification
Item 72. (LA 8.53) Does routine hoiLsehold tasks.
This item is an ex-
tension of Item 48 in
that more continuous
responsibility is car-
ried for routine de-
tails of more help-
ful, yet still simple,
domestic work. In
difficulty the item
corresponds closely
to Item 71, although
different in content.
To pass this item the S is relied upon (without need of undue urging
and follow-up) for effective help at simple tasks which recur routinely
about the house or yard. In accomplishing this the S displays some con-
tinning responsibility for their recurrent fulfillment (i.e., supervision and
follow-up are only intermittently necessary). The tasks are such as dust-
ing, arranging, cleaning, washing or wiping dishes, setting or clearing the
table, making beds, and other relatively simple or assistant "jobs."
In scoring this item the S may not be excused for frequent laziness,
carelessness, incompetence or ■ndependability in the performance of tasks.
Although incentive and training are difficult to take into account, it will
be evident that they may be particularly significant.
The normative maturation occurs between LA's 5-11. The mean M-F
difference is .85 years in favor of the girls, CR .96. The mean total norm
is 8.53 years, SD 1.93.
The feeble-minded show markedly earlier success and more rapid mat-
urational acceleration than the normative S's. The mean N-FM difference
is 2.28 years, CR 4.45. This is one of the few relatively large and statis-
tically reliable N-FM differences. While this result may reflect environ-
mental stimulation and training in tasks easily performed, note that such
an effect is evident for only a few items (Table 9-A).
Occupation
16S
%
/
/
^
•-
/
-/
F
/
/
\
•-
1
1
-•
/
-M
1
1
y
^
:
y
^
/
1
/
I ten
72
•—
/
t
"1
f
-^
4
,^
J
hH
V^
I
j
) 1
ft 1
i 1
rrr.
lOOi
LA (normal by sex)»^
La (norma! totj
Med.
Mean
8D
M:
9.50
8.95
1.72
F:
7.38
8.10
2.03
D:
.85
SA ( FM tot )
Item 72: Does routine household tasks.
CR
CE
.96
Med. Mean SI
N : 8.67 8.53 1.93
FM: 6.10 6.25 1.14
D : 2.28 4.45
The comment for Item 48 (p. 157) is equally relevant here.
Item 80. (LA 10.90) Does small remunerative work.
This item is an ex-
tension of Item 72 in
regard to helpful
tasks and of Item 71
as to self-initiated
work. It is a forerun-
ner of more serious
types of gainful
occupation or employ-
ment. The item is
rather difficult to de-
fine, however, because
of its relation to the
circumstances of the
environment, and
especially in relation
to work done as fa-
milial cooperation,
Such work withm some families is considered as implicit duty,
164
Item Specification
whereas in other families cash payments are made. Hence at this
level, work within the family often takes the place of work out-
side the family, or at least is equivalent to it, and the "pay"
received may be in satisfactions other than cash.
In defining the item, therefore, we are concerned with early stages of
"work" which merit payment of some appreciable sort; which are reflected
in occasional or intermittent efifort on the S's own initiative; which are
performed within the household or about the neighborhood; and for which
some small returns (cash or other) are paid or might properly be paid.
Such work may include odd jobs, housework, gardening, caring for chil-
dren, sewing or cooking, selling magazines or simple products, carrying
newspapers, acting as messenger, and other activities of similar nature.
In respect to work within the household, this item falls be-
tween Items 72 and 89. In relation to Item 72, the tasks are as-
sumed to go beyond the simpler forms of family helpfulness and
to involve those "extras" for which the family might have to
pay or be willing to pay if performed by some one outside the
family. Such work should not be merely trivial, or should not
be paid for just as a matter of sentiment or encouragement, but
should represent the first stages of gainful employment.
It has proved ratlier difficult to score this item because of
environmental and personality variables, and this is reflected in
the maturation curves. In rural environments the item may be
satisfied by assistance in simple farm work; in urban environ-
ments various forms of street work such as shining shoes, tend-
ing stands, or making one's self generally useful will serve ; in
some industrial environments part-time juvenile employment of
various sorts may be accepted.
r
n
1 _ 1
%
PLUS
-«-
■^
A^
""'
lOO
A
/
f
'\,
30
>
^
V'
|M-
1
/
'-'
f
/
,•
70
1
/
/
,t-
-F
6D
[
r
f
-N
—
/
1
50
FM
_*/
/
y
f
40
.^
7
/
1
Her
ngO
30
/.
/
Iter
nBO
. /
/^
1
20
W
^''
Vm
.^
10
.•i^
>
ILA j
"1
nor
1
ma
1^
i
f se
J
d 1
1 1
2 J
3 1
4 1
n
t 1
1-
IT
LA
noi
■mo
!..
\
1 1
0 1
1 t
2 1
3 1
t )
i 1
i 1
SA ( FM tot. )
Item 80: Does small remunerative work.
Med. Mean 8D CR Med. Mean SD CB
M: 10.00 ? 10.10 2.03 N
F: 1J..30 11.70 2.46 FM
D: -1.60 1.51 D
10.94 10.90 2.39
10.03
Occupation
165
The normative boys progress rather steadily from LA 7 to LA 11,
but show a scattering of individual failures thereafter up to LA 16. The
girls show only scattered successes before LA 11, then progress rapidly to
LA 14, with a lapse at LA 15. The mean M-F difference is 1.60 years in
favor of the boys, OR 1.51. The mean total norm is 10.90 years, SD 2.39.
Individual feeble-minded S's succeed at SA's 6-8; thereafter the valida-
tion curve rises rapidly up to SA 10, but falls slightly at SA 11, which is
the highest SA item validation group available. Hence a satisfactory SA
mean cannot be calculated. Within its span the validation curve closely
approximates the curve for the normative S's. Median success for the
feeble-minded S's is calculated at SA 10.03 years, whereas the normative
median is 10.94 years. The fragmentary data beyond SA 11-12 show 100
per cent of passes at SA 12 (N = 15) and SA 13 {N = 7), 83 per cent at SA
14 (N = 6) and 100 per cent at SA's 15 (N = 4) and 16 (N=5).
Although this item is important and readily defined, some
difficulty is encountered in obtaining" thoroughly satisfactory
information for scoring because of variability in environmental
situations. In these days of "softer" • economic conditions, of
reduced parental pressures, and of legislation which limits the
earning pursuits of children and youth, one is tempted to specu-
late on the effect of the times on this item. One might also moral-
ize on the effect of such reduced social incentives on later occupa-
tional effectiveness. Does the current benevolent solicitude for
children's welfare aid or hinder their later adjustments to life's
occupational desirabilities? Or does it by lack of social encour-
agement frustrate the assuming and later fulfillment of social
responsibilities?
Item 82. (LA 11.25) Does simple creative ivork.
This is an extension of
Item 71, and in some respects
has a relation to Item 80. Here
the use of tools or utensils is
assumed to result in more ma-
ture products, such as simple
repair w^ork, or simple con-
structive activity of a rather
original nature. The relation
to Item 80 derives from both
the self -initiated aspect of the
work done and its possibly re-
munerative value. The out-
come in either case may be
only the prototype of socially
more valuable contributions.
166
Item Specification
This is reflected in such household tasks as self -initiated cooking, bak-
ing, sewing, mending; or about the place in simple repair work, construc-
tion,_ gardening, raising of pets; or in more intellectual pursuits in the
writing of simple stories or poems, or the production of simple paintings or
drawings. The important feature of this item is its creative aspect as con-
trasted with routine occupational or industrial pursuits. There is conse-
quently involved some personality element, since it will be observed that
some individuals tend toward routine activities, whereas others tend toward
the more independent or creative occupations.
The normative progression in this performance is gradual and some-
what irregular from LA 7 to LA 18. This is reflected in the rather high
SD*s. The ogives by sex are closely similar with several crossings. The
curve for the boys shows delayed completion between LA's 12-18 with a
noticeable lapse at LA 15. Sex difference in type of activity is allowed for
in the alternatives of the definition. The mean M-F difference is .10 years
in favor of the boys, CR .06. The mean total norm is 11.25 years, SD 3.29.
The success of the feeble-minded S's closely follows that of the norma-
tive S's. The FM curve is incomplete beyond SA 11-12, with SA means con-
sequently not calculable. The median N-FM difference is .54 years in favor
of the normative S's. The fragmentary data beyond SA 11-12 show 80 per
cent at SA 12 (N = 15), 86 per cent at SA 13 (N = 7), and 100 per cent
thereafter (N = 6, 4 and 5 at SA's 14, 15 and 16 respectively).
%
PLL
IS
,/
/
<^
J
-^
—
A
/
M-
-^
/'
,
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^
V
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. ^
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F
V
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//
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1'
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ten-
i82
30
2B
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n82
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Mr
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i!
(noi
fmt
1 b
r «
x).
i
i 1
1 1
} 1
3 1
4 \
\ \
i i
1 f
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LA
nei
rmc
*lt«
*
1
6 1
1 1
J t
\ i
i 1
1 1
1
J
1
Item 82: Does si'inple creative work.
Med. Mean
SD
VR
Med.
Mean
SD
M:
10.10? 11.20
3.36
N :
10.36
11.25
3.29
F:
10.25 11.30
3.23
FM:
10.90
-
-
D:
-.10
M
D :
.
CB
Comment on this item is not the same as for Item 80 since
the emphasis here is on activity rather than value, whereas in
Item 80 this emphasis is reversed. The delayed normative mat-
uration probably reflects personality differences but may be
due to lack of environmental incentive.
Occupation
167
Item 89. (LA 14.65) Perfonns responsible routine chores.
This is an extension of
Items 72 and 80. At this
level the work requires more
responsibility because of its
recurrent nature, and because
the tasks involved are per-
formed with little or no direc-
tion. The work is also more
serious and more varied; al-
though routine in character
it requires judgment and
resourcefulness. It may be
performed within or outside
the family, and from the point
of view of meriting payment
is at a higher level than Item
80.
Typical examples include household tasks, family chores, gardening,
farm work, miscellaneous jobs, or industrial work. It is important that the
S reveal responsibility for continuously performing (with only occasional
instruction, urging and oversight after the initial stages of effort) the
somewhat variable routine tasks assigned to him.
~
•/.
PLl
100
90
80
70
CO
SO
s
...
--
"/
^
V
Itei
nB9
,'
/
Iter
n83
/
,'
/
/
A
S '
/
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/"
\l
M-
y
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'•'
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F
FM-
V
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y
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..
./
"•'
((■
-..
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7
LA
no
me
;:
r "
1
0 1
1 1
t t
3 1
1 1
5 1
i \
1
i 1
i 2
J...
LA
SA
not
( F
mo
M 1
1 lo
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1
rt
1 1
i 1
] 1
r(
S 1
t 1
I 1
1 1
J..'
Item 89:
Perfor
ms responsi'bJe
routine chores.
Med. Mean
SD
CR
Med. Mean
SD
M:
13.83 14.50
2.68
N :
14.14 14.65
2.36
F:
15.06 ? 14.80
1.97
FM:
11.07
-
D:
-.30
.27
D :
.
CR
The normative maturation occurs between LA 11 and LA 19. There are
minor lapses for the girls at LA 12 and LA 15, a downward trend for the
boys at LA's 15 and 16, and delayed completion for both sexes at LA's
17-19. The mean M-F difference is .30 years in favor of the boys, CR .27.
The mean total norm is 14.65 years, SD 2.36.
168 Item Specification
The feeble-minded S's show earlier onset and more rapid initial rise
than the normal subjects, but the validation curve is incomplete beyond
SA 11-12. The fragmentary data beyond SA 11-12 show 67 per cent at SA
12 (N = 15), 57 per cent at SA 13 (N = 7), 75 per cent at SA 14 (N = 6),
100 per cent at SA 15 (N =: 4) and 60 per cent at SA 16 (N = 5). The
median N-FM difference is 3.07 years in favor of the feeble-minded.
It is tempting to infer that the relative superiority of the
feeble-minded S's is due to environmental pressure directed to-
ward useful tasks, or to advanced LA, but this ignores the lack
of corresponding advantages in other item performances.
Item 98. (LA 18.53) Has a job or continues schooling.
This continues Item 89 to a higher level Vv^here the work is
done as fairly continuous full-time employment, usually for
wages, at common labor or slightly skilled occupations. The item
takes reasonable account of the variable conditions of employ-
ment, but assumes that under ordinary conditions the S will
maintain work on his own initiative. The item also recognizes
in view of (1) recent legislative restrictions to employment be-
cause of age and sex, and (2) the marked rise in the age of com-
pulsory attendance at school, and (3) the conditions favorable
to voluntary continuation of school beyond the high school age
and level (all in the United States), that continued school
attendance beyond senior high school (junior college, business
school, trade or technical school, normal school, college, and
so on) may be accepted in lieu of (other) steady employment.
Some elaboration of the variables which make it difficult to
more precisely define the adult items related to occupational em-
ployment is offered in the summary for this category (pp. 180-
184). That discussion includes some general principles which
should be considered in relation to the particular specifications
of these more advanced activities. Further assistance is found
in the general summary for this chapter (pp. 259-265).
As to gainful work, success on this item assumes fairly regular self-
sought employment which either yields or merits remuneration in cash or
equivalent emoluments in relatively unskilled or semi-skilled jobs. These
include common laborers, routine farm workers, factory and construction
operatives, trade helpers, minor clerks, servants, routine houseworkers,
and in general occupations below those required for Item 106. These occu-
pations may be described (1) as those included in occupational grades 5
and 6 of standard occupational scales, or (2) as the apprentice or sub-
Journeyman level of semi-skilled trades. The examiner will need to make
due allowance for unemployment due to genuine lack of work opportunity
rather than to occupational incompetence, perhaps utilizing F or NO scor-
ing. It is impracticable to specify the degree of remuneration since this
fluctuates markedly with time, place, and type of work, and demand.
Occupation
169
The normative curves rise
sharply from LA 17 to LA 20 with
a minor "plateau" at LA 18. The
mean M-F difference is .25 years
in favor of the girls, CR .44. The
mean total norm is 18.53 years, SD
1.20.
The feeble-minded S's show no
successes on this item up to SA 11-
12. Nor are there any successes be-
yond this limit in the total VTS
sample, which includes only insti-
tutionalized subjects most of whom
presumably could not hold an in-
dependent steady job satisfactorily
in the world at large. They are also
incapable of continuing schooling
beyond high school.
PLUS
m
fit
/"
Iten
i98
J
/
70
J 1
/ 1
€'(P
1 1
%(t
/,
'
40
F-
^•7
M
1
1
\<
— M
?fl
1
f
If!
1
'j
/
«.
J
0 «16' 17 18 19 20 21...
LA (normal by sex)"^
I 98:
Has a jol) or con
tinues
Med. Mean
SD
M:
18.9t> 18.65
1.02
F:
18.13 ? 18.40
1.36
D:
.25
Tot.:
18.86 18.53
1.20
CR
.44
It may be noted that many feeble-minded S's outside insti-
tutions are gainfully and often satisfactorily employed in spite
of, and without contradicting, their mental deficiency. This is
evidence that occupational pursuits alone do not insure social
competence amounting to essential normality, nor does lack of
employment alone reduce normal social competence to feeble-
minded limits.
Some institutional mental defectives are excellent workers
and either merit or actually receive remunerative emoluments.
But this fact does not warrant a plus score on this item since
such S's are not maintaining their employment independently.
Specific evidence on these issues is reported by Ordahl, Keyt and
Wright (p. 558).
The detailed distribution of all the normative plus scores on
this item were: (1) for males, 5 attending school beyond high
school, 61.5 in general occupations, 34.5 in trade jobs, and 25 in
clerical work; (2) for females, 5 attending school, 60.5 in gen-
eral occupations, 27 in trade jobs, and 36 in clerical work. The
scores were generally unaffected by LA except that those at-
170 Item Specification
tending school were all below LA 24 years. The plus scores for
"general occupations" for female S's included 19 as housewife,
not including 23 additional on Item 106 (q.v.).
Some difficulty will be encountered in evaluating grade of
work in relation to occupational titles. The spread in type of
work, degree of skill, responsibility and knowledge is rather
wide for each of three items (98, 106 and 114) employed for this
purpose in this scale. Thus "farmer" may mean anything from
the odd- jobs farm hand to independent farm manager on a
large scale. "Teacher" may range from routine elementary
instruction to professional research supervision. "Secretary"
might include duties from appointment clerk through file clerk,
typist, stenographer, senior clerk stenographer to high-grade
business, professional or editorial duties. A "carpenter" may be
a hatchet-and-saw helper, journeyman specialist, contract car-
penter, cabinet-maker, or designer. The examiner must be fairly
conversant with these wide ranges of occupational talent as
represented in standard occupational scales in order to assign
proper evaluation scores in a given case. Even when this is
clear, the range from bare plus to abundant plus on a given
item will be wide, and doubt will be experienced in deciding
whether a given score should be a high plus at a low level or a
low plus at a higher level (e.g., a high-plus housewife on Item
98 versus a low-plus household manager on Item 106).
School mortality statistics indicate that even under today's
favorable conditions less than a third of those who enter school
graduate from the 12th grade. Probably less than a third of
these (or about ten per cent of those of college age) continue
schooling beyond high school. In our normative sample only 10
subjects of all those who were scored plus on this item were so
scored on the schooling alternative. Five of these were boys
under LA 24 and five were girls under LA 22 years, with not
more than two subjects at any one age and sex. Hence, this
alternative is less important than might at first be expected.
And in spite of the extreme range of individual occupations, no
difficulty was encountered in scoring this item within its rather
general form of definition.
Item 106. (LA about 25) Performs skilled work.
This item is similar to Item 98, but at a higher level.
The grade of work is represented by the journeyman level of skilled
occupations, including trade technical, skilled clerical and minor profes-
sional occupations, and the minor degrees of supervisory work.
These occupations are represented by classes 3 and 4 of standard occu-
pational scales and include such workers as skilled oflSce clerk, skilled ar-
Occupation
171
ff^^' K!«^^ teacher, trained nurse, independent farmer (as contrasted with
farm hand), small merchant, shop foreman, department supervisor and
those superior grades of housework which might be designated as hou"e.
hold manager (as contrasted with simple housework). These occupations
fTfjJn \^°'fi '" ^**"!,l^- «"d ^^1«^- those of Item 114. It is impracUcaWe
inl. • •/* fi"r.ff^*'^*'°"^ ^'^'^^^^^ *>^ th« variable work encompassed
under similar job titles (see comment on Item 98). In lieu of such gainful
employment, the item is satisfied if the S is successfully attending upner
class courses of standard college curricula that are beyond junior college
oi beyond the sophomore year of a standard four-year college course
% PL1
100
US
90
fin
item
106
A
/
-•—
70
1 \
1 \
t —
60
/
/
\
\
T
/
50
r
1
\-
, /■
•
40
/
f
30
F-
/
y
\
h
\.
y
A
20
r
1
/
/
V
>i
— «^
^
^
V
/
_M
10
-./^
1
r#f
^
r
LA (
7^
norr
nail
It
M:
F:
D:
To
* 2
jy s€
EM ]
t.:
) 2]
x)»i
06:
1
24
25
l 22
Fer
fed.
.84?
.38?
\ "i
form
Met
\ 24
s sk
in
illed
8D
wor
1 2^
OR
28
29
3
»— '
.^^- ^^}^ ^^}^^ ^^!* ^t^™ thus far discussed for which the normative stand-
ardization does not reach or maintain 100 per cent of success (see Item 102
f^J^Ll^'^S'i!;'"^ 11""^ '"^ *^^ ^?^^^ ^^ ^ ^hole). Hence we must resort to
r^.^n^n ^^Jher than conventional, statistical interpretations (see di^
S«i^-?' ^'v- 1^1' °^ course, desirable in such a scale as this to include
celling Items which few or no subjects pass. "ii-iuue
c-:«« ^^^ ^^^^f-'^T ^o?"en surpass the men. This is chiefly due to the inclu-
?i^^ Qfil^'P^^-.l^?"^?^ occupations which are beyond the upper liiSt of
ti!^^ ^""^ ^^^^^"^ J¥, ^°,Y^^ ^^"2® °^ It^™ 106. Individual successes for
the women occur at LA's 18-20. followed by rather rapid rise to LA 23 and
SerJof/w"^""" of success thereafter^ Hence laTer maturatiTnfn thfs
fnt c, ^ "°i succeed in cancelling individual differences beyond LA 22.
for success fluctuates thereafter between 50 and 90 per cent of Dfsses
Median success is reached at LA 22.17 years, but is r^Jeated at lA IIS
wlrd di^f^lJT^^'l ^^ It"^" ^^ 2^-?^ y^^^^- <Note that f o? all fuch^awk-
Tv "-^^ tn?.Hf.'?^lV" *^^'^ ^f^\f i^^ "^^^^a" reported is accompanied
?J^i,-L • '"<S?ate the average of all the 50-percentile points.) The average
ceiling IS at 71 per cent success for LA's 22-30. average
172 Item Specification
The normative men show individual successes from LA 19 to LA 23.
then rising to a maximum of 40 per cent and maintaining an average ceil-
ing of 33 per cent for LA's 24-30.
The total normative curve (omitted) is a mean of the M-F curves. It
rises gradually from LA 18 to LA 23 but is unevenly maintained there-
after. There are five median crossings, whose average is 25.38 years. The
average ceiling is 52 per cent for LA's 23-30.
The feeble-minded S's show no successes on this item. Nor are there
any individual successes beyond the item validation group within the total
VTS sample. It is not to be expected that any mentally deficient person
would succeed on this item without exceptional supervision.
In general, the item may be said to represent the 25-year
level of maturation. This means that only one-half of S's over
LA 25 are expected to succeed on this item. The M-F differences
are more apparent than real ; the women are favored by clerical
and teaching occupations (a) in which success is rather quickly
established, (b) which represent chiefly intellectual rather than
manually skilled tasks, and (c) which tend toward routine
rather than independent skilled work. The schooling alternative
occurs for only one man (LA 22) and no women. The range of
occupations is wide as to degree of skill and varied as to kind
of work. Hence it is impracticable to define the kinds of
employment ; the examiner must be sophisticated in such inter-
pretations and will be assisted by familiarity with standard
occupational job-analyses.
The detailed analysis of the normative plus scores shows:
(1) for males, a scattering of occupations from skilled trades
to junior professional work and small business management
(positions occurring more than once being salesmen 5, office
manager 4, business 4, bookkeeper 3, in a total of 28) ; (2) for
females, more concentration in fewer occupations especially
clerical and teaching (20 stenographers, 8 secretaries, 8 book-
keepers, 21 teachers, 6 hairdressers, 3 nurses, 3 telephone
operators). All of 23 housewives were either yet or recently
in such skilled occupations as just listed.
It is to be noted that plus score on this item gives auto-
matic credit on Item 98. Credit for occupation as housewife
is given at Item 98 when "housewife" involves only routine
housework on a simple plane, and also at Item 106 where it
involves household management at a more complex level. This
requires examiner's discretion regarding the specific circum-
stances encountered, e.g., when the care, training and nursing
of children is at a semi-professional level, or the problems of
the business management of the home (financial, household
staff, maintenance and the like) approximate business manage-
ment. Consideration of husbands is not included here except
Occupation
173
in those instances where the "man of the family" actually
performs the work of the typical housewife. Note that husband
and wife may receive additional scores on such items as Items
100-105.
Item 107. (LA 25+) Engages in beneficial recreation.
This item may
seem to be irrelevant
in the occupational
category. It repre-
sents a continuation
of those early self-
initiated personal ac-
tivities which reflect
social maturation
without necessarily
productive outcome.
But even if these en-
gagements do yield
practical returns, our
interest centers not
so much on these
fruits as on the other-
wise profitable use of
leisure time.
The item is to be interpreted as seriouslj purposive adalt recreation
as contrasted with mere sitting around or relaxine: in passive amuse-
ment as spectator or listener rather than as an active participant. In other
words, the activities reflect a mature display of need for development of
what might be called personal self-expression outside the field of economic
necessity. These absorptions are extremely varied in such fields as athletics,
literature, music, art, drama, gardening, collecting, travel, serious discus-
sion of important topics, and in general the more advantageous forms of
worthwhile diversions. Some of the more specifically socially directed
forms of correlated activities will be found in the superior level of the
socialization category.
Like most of the superior adult items, this item is difficult to define
because of its varied forms of expression and because of the difficulty of
placing a proper value on the level of development which the activities
reflect. The examiner is therefore cautioned against scoring the item too
generously. The performances involved are basically related to making
profitable use of leisure time for safeguarding or improving the S's mental
and physical welfare. This is witnessed in serious reading, healthful games
and sports, constructive hobbies, creative gardening or breeding, musical
performance and appreciation, serious dramatic and artistic interests, and
so on. Merely passive interests, casual amusement, or pre-adult pastimes
are not to be credited at this level. The examiner must distinguish between
youthful and adult recreations of the same order but different purpose and
outcome, and this calls for discreet judgment as well as sophisticated dis-
crimination.
174
Item Specification
The normative evidence shows a few individual or emergent successes
prior to LA 19 ; thereafter some maturation is apparent but is heavily over-
laid with individual differences. M-F differences are not consistent in LA
groups (note interlacing graphs), but the women show a faint tendency to
excel the men. The data do not permit calculation of standard central ten-
dencies. The mean per cent of success for men is 35 per cent for LA's 19-30,
and for women is 38 per cent for the same intervals. Top success is 75 per
cent of passes for the women, 65 per cent for the men, and 57.5 per cent
for the total. The "medians" (averages of 50-percentile points) are invalid
since the graphs are not ultimately sustained above the 50-percentile.
None of the feeble-minded S's in the total VTS population pass this
item.
% PLl
100
90
80
70
()0
-'S
1
j i
! I 1
i
1
1 ! 1
i 1 1
1 i 1
ii
ItetT
107
1
1
1
1
T 1
n
1
A
i
50
k
1
A
t
40
ll
\A
1
4
\
i
30
M^
■r
\>!
\
4 /
V
y
K
iA
t
1
20
j
r
»
r
\
w A
{
^'
\
\
A
A
J
|— F
V
\_
J
10
(^
W^
u
V
V
1
m
5*i
norr
6 1
nail
f 1
jy s<
8 1
x)«i
9 2
0 2
I 2
I h
i t
i i
5 2
S 2
: 2
i t
J 3
)
Item 107:
Engages in beneficial
recreation.
Med. Mean
8D
CR
M:
24.88 ?
.
F:
26.06 ?
-
D:
.
.
Tot.:
25.20 ?
_
This item is not very satisfactory and should be replaced or
discarded in later revisions. Although readily defined it is not
easily scored because of difficulties of specific evaluation. More-
over, the item seems rather weakly "loaded" for social com-
petence at this level and somewhat irrelevant because of its in-
dividual rather than group-social bearing. It is also for some
subjects a "retreat" substitute for more effective forms of social
self-sufficiency.
Occupation
175
Item 108. (LA 25+) Systetmtizes own work.
This item represents the superior aspects of general occupa-
tional effectiveness as revealed by the initiative, responsibility,
originality, system and resourcefulness with which the S per-
forms his work. The item might be considered as belonging in
the self-direction category, but is included here because of its
more immediate reference to manner of working. A superior
aspect of all work is the extent to which one exercises foresight,
planning, alertness, adaptiveness and thoroughness for increas-
ing one's occupational success.
To satisfy the item it should be apparent that the S typically programs
Ms work in such a manner as to provide for contingencies and for making
the most eflfective use of his time and energies for increasing the value ol
his work as to quantity, quality, and variety. Another aspect is the employ-
ment of new devices and methods (see Item 116), a tendency toward experi-
mentation, and the designing or adoption of new tools, methods, materials
and procedures.
% PLUS
18 19 20 21
LA (normal by sex)"^
Item 108: Systematizes own work.
Med. Mean 8D CR
M: - - -
F: - - -
D: - -
Tot.: - - -
A few of the normative subjects pass this item between LA's 18 and
22. Success is thereafter revealed in about one-quarter of all subjects but
176
Item Specification
without stable increases with advancing LA. Prior to LA 23 the men
slightly excel the women; thereafter the M-F difference is neutral (LA's
23-26) or reversed (LA's 27-29).
None of the feeble-minded S's in the total VTS population pass this
item.
This item is valuable as one phase of superior adult social
competence but does not "standardize" normatively because of
its comparatively late and infrequent appearance. A scoring
difficulty is encountered because the criteria reflect personality
attitude or a qualitative manner of performing work as opposed
to the level at which such work is performed. The item empha-
sizes self -improvement in work as one important phase of occu-
pational competence which is not satisfactorily provided for in
the preceding items. It also anticipates the remaining items in
this category.
Item 111. (LA 25-[-) Supervises occupational pursuits.
V
nn
-fy
This item provides
for the minor super-
visory and executive
features of gainful
employment. Admin-
istrative control, or
occupational manage-
ment, requires apti-
tudes and competen-
ces beyond the pro-
ductive work to be
done. This exercise of
directive responsibil-
ity represents a high-
er level of accom-
plishment than those
required for Items 98
or 106.
To pass this item, the S satisfactorily fills a minor executive position,
which is appreciably higher than that reflected in the foreman grade of
routine occupations; or the S manages an independent business at some-
thing higher than the small merchant level.
Occupation
177
None of the normative S's pass' %
this item below LA 25, and none
of the women succeed below LA
28. TSventy per cent of all the
men at LA's 25-30 succeed, and
IC per cent of the women at LA's
28-30. The item therefore suggests
maturational progression rather
than mere individual differences in
the superior adult range vdth a
"top" of 30 per cent success for
men and 10 per cent for women.
This intimation of male superiority
(if real) may reflect a cultural
prejudice but more plausibly sug-
gests a male advantage.
None of the feeble-minded S's in
the VTS population succeed on this
item.
PLUS
tnA
4A
fUi
Item 111
7ft
£r»
<;0
(SO
30
K»
(
«-J^^y^
A
/
S«24 2
r4H
7''28 29 30
LA (normal by sex)"
Item 111:
M:
F:
D:
Tot.:
Supervises occupational pursuits.
Med. Mean SD CR
It will be evident that several of the adult items in this
category might be considered as alternative rather than pro-
gressively cumulative. That is, some superior adults may
achieve less than the scores due them because of differences in
interests or aptitudes rather than of lower competence. We
can merely indicate that versatility of interests and aptitudes
does increase competence if for no other reason than that of
greater availability for more manifold undertakings. In short,
supervisory success added to other success means more than
merely alternative to such achievement (cf. p. 181).
Item 113. (LA 25+) Directs or manages affairs of others.
This is an extension of Item 111 in which managerial and
supervisory functions operate at a superior executive level.
This is represented by department heads of fairly large business con-
cerns, or by administrative responsibility for technical or professional
operations which require leadership in addition to specialized knowledge
or skill; or the S manages a large business in which he employs numerous
workers or controls extensive investments or expenditures. The item is also
a superior development of Item 108, in respect to which the S not only
systematizes his own work, but also plans and directs the work of others in
a major way. The item does not imply that the work of those thus
coordinated is inferior to that of the coordinator (cf. Items 114 and 116
and also discussion pp. 180-182).
178
Item Specification
% PLUS
loof—
None of the normative women,
and none of the men below LA 25,
pass this item. Ten per cent of the
normative men succeed at LA's
25, 27 and 28. The item apparently
demands superior competence, but
these data reveal oiJy superior
individual differences suggestive of
superior maturation.
None of the feeble-minded S's
in the total VTS population pass
this item.
Item 113
0 \<r24
M
X
Item 113:
M:
F:
D:
Tot.
25 26"27 28 29 3
LA (normal by sex)"^
Directs or manages affairs of others.
Med. Mean SIX CR
r-
Item 114. (LA 254-) Performs expert or professional work.
This item is both superior and alternative to Item 113.
Occupation
179
The level of activity is superior to the items previously
discussed in degrees of skill, knowledge, product or manage-
ment, as represented by occupational grades 1 and 2 of stand-
ard occupational scales. Note that such work may be above,
equal to, or below the requirements of Item 113, i.e., inclusive
or exclusive of it.
To pass this item, (a) the S pursues with note some profession (e.g.,
ministry, law, medicine, engineering) such as requires at least college
graduation or equivalent preparation or aptitude; or (b) the S maintaina
a career (literary, dramatic, artistic and other) of high merit as reflected
in successful output, reputation and performance; or (c) the S commands
respect as an acknowledged authority in a field requiring specialized
knowledge or superior skills; or (d) the S performs executive work at
the superior executive level of a large business or professional sphere,
as for example, director of department heads, or chief of skilled operations.
In the normative sample one
woman at LA 24 passes this item
and one man at LA 28. These S's
reveal the occasional incidence of
successful performance in the adult
range of social development. Hence
the item samples a highly superior
achievement which does not "nor-
matize" because of its rarity.
% PU
JS
\
[
90
80
[tem
114
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
-^
^■^
lt>4N
Uy
A
h-»i
'
(i«2
T^
n?
5^
Ss"
V'i
V*t
^ d
V"
LA (normal by sex)^
iTEif 114: Performs expert or professional work.
Med. Mean 8D CR
M: ...
P: - - -
D:
Tot.: - - .
This item might have included a schooling alternative at
the graduate level of college instruction or at correspondingly
high levels of artistic, business, and other career preparation.
This alternative was deemed inadvisable because such graduate
or preparatory study represents only a high-grade novitiate
preliminary to the social competence expected for this item in
the gainful, productive or administrative pursuit of such call-
ings.
180 Item Specification
Item 116. (LA 25-|-) Creates own opportunities.
This item is a superior expression of the performances con-
tained in Items 108, 113 and 114.
Here the S independently exploits his environment in a large or criti-
cal way for his own advancement or the general good. Here the S also
shows superior creative or organizing success sustained over an appre-
ciable period of time in such a manner as to reveal something more than
the capitalizing of temporary favorable opportunity. Thus the S designs
new ways of doing things, makes important contributions to the further
development of his field of work, is adaptive and creative in departing from
accepted routines and substituting: improved procedures or promoting orig-
inal discoveries, improved operation, and more e£5cient management. Or th«
S opens new markets, fosters the use of new materials, increases the eflfi-
ciency of organization, introduces new procedures, and in general does the
work of an outstanding investigator, authority or leader. The fields of
operation are extensive, such as science, invention or discovery, the arts
and humanities, politics and government, business education, and many
others.
None of the normative S's pass this item. This means that the perform-
ance is too rare to be encountered at all in the relatively small population
sample employed in this standardization. Yet the item obviously represents
an important high degree of social competence which is encountered infre-
quently in more extended population data. Its inclusion in this scale is war-
ranted by the need for "tailing" the Scale to cover relatively unattainable
performances or those which are only rarely attained in relatively extended
population samples. Its successful performance in particular individuals is
witnessed in the illustrative examinations (pp. 307, 334).
Sumynary. In summarizing this category we may re-observe
that the items are designed to evaluate all stages of occupational
development. The difficulties of this undertaking are readily
apparent. The juvenile items include self -occupation and simple
forms of work ; the adult items include occupational skills which
require facility, knowledge and management as well as social
relations. Although we have placed in this category those items
which are primarily occupational in character, this grouping is
principally one of convenience for purposes of examination and
no special value attaches to this arrangement. Except for the
logic of the Scale as a whole, this dilemma is relatively unim-
portant. Much more serious is the distinction to be made between
occupations from the point of view of their inherent skills and
knowledge as contrasted with their executive supervision and
administrative management as well as associated social rela-
tions. The philosophy of the Scale suggests that directing the
work of others represents a higher stage of social maturity than
does the actual performance of skilled work.
A particular difficulty is encountered in attempting to illus-
trate the fields of work, the levels of work performance, and the
nature and variety of tasks. Considering the extremely wide
Occupation 181
range of occupational activities and the varying levels at which
these are performed under different exigencies of time and cir-
cumstances, it is both inadvisable and impracticable to amplify
the illustrations of the central principles involved in each item.
This is taken care of to some extent in the standard occupational
scales, job analysis descriptions, and occupational dictionaries
with which the examiner must be familiar if he is to score the
adult occupational items with confidence and accuracy. Obvi-
ously it is desirable that the examiner himself be widely in-
formed or experienced in the field of employment and intimately
familiar with the complex of abilities required at different
occupational levels.
It is also important to distinguish between what might be
called occupational levels and occupational virtues (p. 30).
We have already noted that the three items (98, 106 and
114) employed for successive job levels are severally too broad
for clear differentiation of the progressive stages of social com-
petence reflected in productive work. Perhaps five, or even ten,
stages might be isolated. This v^^ould avoid compressing dissim-
ilar work levels into similar stages. It is probable that the un-
satisfactory nature of the data curves for Items 106 and 114 is
in part due to this confusion of inequalities of work values.
There is a further dilemma, namely, the relative values of
"productive" versus administrative effort. Society generally
places a higher value upon (offers larger returns to) managerial
tasks than upon supervised work. This is presumably because
the executive provides for the "worker." Yet at given levels of
work the "operative" may be more competent than the "oper-
ator" in respect to the work to be done, while less competent to
provide the conditions needed for doing it successfully. It is the
coordinating leadership of the manager that rates him as more
competent than those whom he m.anages, even though the ulti-
mate operations performed may require other proficiencies su-
perior to those attained by "the boss."
In effect the dilemma may be resolved by rating the leader
at one work level as equivalent in competence to the workman
at the next level. Thus, in the estimation of social competence
(1) the gang-labor boss may be thought of as equivalent to the
semi-skilled workman, (2) the foreman of a semi-skilled group
to the skilled craftsman, (3) the supervisor of a skilled group to
the highly skilled artisan, (4) the minor executive to the
expert — elaborated according to the occupational fields or job
titles under consideration.
182 Item Specification
In this scale we have implemented a compromise solution
by separating the manner of work (Items 108, 111, 113 and 116)
from its (other) level of difficulty (Items 98, 106 and 114). But
we have also extended the compromise to alternatives within
these items. It is evident from both speculative and empirical
considerations that the result is not altogether satisfactory;
indeed to some it will seem quite unsatisfactory. We may well
anticipate that later work may produce happier results.
The maturational tendency toward self-expression in work
is likely to be inhibited when the individual is obliged to work
at occupations not suited to his talents. There may then ensue
apathetic attitudes toward work which produce laziness, perver-
sity or insubordination. The frustrated normal satisfactions in
work may then be compensated by resistance toward manage-
ment authority with consequent need for increasing the pressure
of supervision. This creates a vicious circle in which the individ-
ual tends to limit his own achievements by seeking to avoid the
constraints imposed upon him by the necessities of working. The
final result is an obvious temporizing or trifling with one's most
important social responsibility, namely, the need for sustaining
economic self-sufficiency. Hence many individuals succeed poorly
under authority but succeed rather well when this pressure is
absent, although freedom in work is usually earned by first sub-
mitting to authoritative direction. However, the opposite effects
are also encountered.
These observations are pertinent in scoring occupational
performances with reference to the degree of responsibility or
self-suffi.ciency with which such activities are pursued. This is
specially noteworthy during the late adolescent period when the
individual is most positively seeking self-dependent status.
The adolescent m.ay be so absorbed in pursuing his own in-
terests that he tends to be socially non-cooperative except for
his 0"wn immediate group or where his ov>7n interests are heavily
at stake. This egocentric absorption is so characteristic of ado-
lescents as to seriously influence the scoring of items in the
adolescent range. Consequently personality attitudes at all ages
have special influence on these performances. The examiner is
cautioned against being too sympathetic with these motivation
complexes and is urged to score the items at face value in terms
of actual performance since the measure of maturation during
this period involves cooperative social responsibility.
The situation is further complicated by the need for accept-
ing continued attendance at school in lieu of gainful employment.
Here the occupational activity is one of continued preparation
Occupation
183
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184 Item Specification
for later gainful employment and may be accepted in place of
productive employment provided that such schooling is pursued
with success and is not a mere evasion of work or a passive
continuation of the period of adolescent dependence.
Although occupational activities are essential to the satis-
factory appraisal of social competence, the environmental and
personal differences involved make difficult a satisfactory formu-
lation of relatively universal performances which adequately
anticipates all varieties of such experiences. Hence the items of
this category may seem subject to criticism as too heavily
influenced by opportunity, necessity, or variety of attending
circumstances. On the other hand, for at least these experimen-
tal subjects, both normative and comparative, and in the various
application studies of both individuals and groups, such antici-
pations are not seriously encountered in fact. Hence the data
confirm the practicability of these items even though logical
speculation raises doubts. The criterion of habitual performance
is assumed for each item as elsewhere emphasized, but to avoid
tedious repetition has not been stressed in these items.
Mean item norms are not established in this category be-
yond Item 98. (For discussion of norms rated "LA 25+" see
p. 362.)
Statistically reliable normative sex differences are not ap-
parent for any item in this category. The highest M-F CR is 1.51
(Item 80). The highest mean M-F difference is 1.60 years (also
Item 80). Variability in performance is also not serious; the
highest SD is found on Item 82 (3.36 for boys and 3.23 for
girls).
Three items show relatively high N-FM CR's, namely Item
72 (CR 4.45), Item 43 (CR 2.68) and Item 57 (CR 2.67). The
first shows a mean N-FM difference of 2.28 years (one-third its
base) in favor of the feeble-minded S's, the second .77 years
(one-quarter of its base) in favor of the normative S's, and the
third 1.55 years (one-third of its base) in favor of the norma-
tive subjects.
Communication 185
Communication
These four facets — listening, speaking, reading and
writing — give shape and form to the diamond of language.
Polishing this diamond is a life's ivork. — Emmett A. Betts
Verbal commerce with one's fellows is another critical mode
of social development. Societies may be said to develop through
increased facility in social intercourse, and language use is ita
principal medium. In our day and in our society, this develop-
ment has reached such a high point that much of our early life
experience is devoted to acquiring various means for the
interchange of ideas through conversation, reading, writing,
pictures, graphs, formulas and so on.
From another point of view, we may say that social com-
petence is directly related to facility in means of communication,
since so much of the aif airs of any human society are conducted
through verbal, pictorial and symbolic exchange. In the higher
forms of society such facility is increased from the merely vocal-
verbal and pictographic stage to the literate-verbal and abstract
symbol level. Thus remote and recorded communication as op-
posed to immediate and evanescent intercourse increase the
range of social competence. Literacy and the extended use of
modern mechanical means of communication (printing, tele-
phone, telegraph, phonograph, camera, radio, for example)
definitely influence social competence by increasing both the ex-
tent and variety of the individual's social horizons. The illiterate
person is definitely handicapped in the social expression of his
capabilities. Similarly the deaf are handicapped by the limita-
tions of non-vocal communication, and the blind by non-visual
communication.
We are not concerned primarily here with the psychological
significance of the development of language nor with the intrin-
sic values of scholastic achievement. We are concerned rather
with the social uses to which language, literacy, and other means
of communication are put and the degrees to which this influ-
ences the more complex forms of social adaptation. This cate-
gory therefore includes items from earliest infancy through late
adolescence, beyond which communication becomes too highly
specialized for our purposes or else is reflected indirectly as
contributing factors in other items, especially as related to
occupational and social pursuits.
We shall have to exclude the use of certain means of
communication because of their relative lack of universality or
186 Item Specification
general availability. This is not because of their unimportance
but rather is due to environmental and economic variabilities.
We must also distinguish between social maturity and social
competence in this category. With a given degree of compe-
tence in the use of the English language one may be incompetent
in Chinese, although perhaps capable of so becoming competent.
Or a sign-versed deaf person may be unable to "talk" with
a hearing person not so versed. Also the blind who attain com-
petence in the use of Braille are set apart in such communication
from those not thus competent though equally mature in com-
mand of language. Hence competence in communication as in
other aspects of social maturation depends heavily upon milieu,
and the individual's capacity or incapacity for assimilating the
modes of competence pertaining to various environments may
not be ignored.
The 15 items in this category are spread from birth to eight-
een years, with 3 at j^ears O-I, 2 at I, 1 each at II, V, VI and
VIII, 3 at X, 1 at XI, and 2 at XV-XVIII. Originally, certain of
these items were expressed as the use of school grade achieve-
ment, but this proved impracticable because of the difficulty of
obtaining satisfactory evidence on the use of achievement. Con-
sequently the items were reformulated with use as achievement.
Obviously, school achievement is not necessarily capitalized for
social use, and conversely social use may be independent of
(formal) school achievement. Hence, what the S does with his
learning rather than what he has learned or been taught is of
prime concern.
The serial sequences include eight items (1, 10, 17, 31, 34,
44, 79 and 91) on vocal communication (inarticulate, articulate,
receptive, declarative, narrative and discussive), five items (58,
63, 78, 81 and 90) on writing, and 2 items (73 and 84) on read-
ing. However, there is considerable overlap in the last nine items
of the category since reading, writing and conversation are in-
termingled.
Item 1. (LA .25) "Croius"; laughs.
This is one of the earliest forms of all expression and is
socially useful as communicating to others the state of the indi-
vidual from the point of view of need for attention. The item is
also a preliminary stage of more significant later details of com-
munication.
Communication
187
At this stage the S vocalizes inarticulately through spontaneous gur-
gHng or cooing, and in this way expresses spontaneous evidence of comfort
or satisfaction. Or the S may laugh spontaneously, or when stimulated, as
a means of registering pleasure feelings. Not that other forms of vocaliza-
tion such as crying or fretting are less significant, but rather that these
continue only for a few years, and therefore cannot be differentiated read-
ily for maturation purposes. The relative absence of crying after about
LA 4, 5 or 6 years is more significant socially than is the presence of cry-
ing previous to these ages.
Success on this item is report-
ed in 75 per cent of the normative
S's of both sexes at LA 0-1, and in
all subjects thereafter. The mean
total norm is .25 years.
Similar results are noted for
the feeble-minded S's, with 67.5 per
cent succeeding at SA 0-1, and all
thereafter. The mean N-FM differ-
ence is .08 years in favor of the
normal subjects.
0 1 2 3 TTT 0 12,^^
LA (iscrmal by sex)^ LA (normal tot)
SA( FMtot )
M:
F:
D:
Item 1: "Crows"; laughs.
Med. Mean SB CR Med. Mean SD
.17 .25 - N : .17 .25
.17 .25 - FM: .24 .33
0 - D : -.08
CR
Item 10. (LA .55) "Talks"; imitates sounds.
This is a simple extension of Item 1, in which babbling or inarticulate
speech reveals higher expressive or imitative attempts toward communica-
tion which are something more than mere pleasurable vocalization. By this
means the S "talks" to himself or to those about him. The latter commonly
attach definite meanings to these sounds as indicating the S's desires or
attitudes. We exclude here those various forms of crying which represent
fretfulness, annoyance, anger or dissatisfaction, even though these may be
just as useful socially for indicating the infant's desires. As in Item 1, we
are more concerned with positive (essentially linguistic) means of com-
munication which develop later stages of practical usefulness, whereas the
negative tendency (annoyance cries) is ultimately abortive and becomes^
eliminated.
188
Item Specification
This item is passed by 40 per
cent of the normative boys, and by
50 per cent of the girls at LA 0-1,
and by all S's thereafter. The mean
M-F difference is .10 years in favor
of the girls. The mean total norm is
.55 years.
The feeble-minded S's show de-
layed maturation in SA versus
normative LA groups. The mean
N-FM difference is .90 years in
favor of the normal subjects.
ri 2 3 4.
LA (normal by sex)^
0 12 3 4.
LA (normal tot.)
SA( FMtot )
Item 10: "Talks"; imitates sounds.
Med.
Mean
M:
.67
.60
F:
.50
.50
D:
.10
SD CR Med. Mean SD
N : .59 .55
FM: 1.39 1.45 .75
D : -.90
CR
If at first it may seem that this item an(3 Item 1 are not
readily discriminable, this impression is contradicted by the
consistency of the normative and validation data for the two
items, from which clear distinctions are readily apparent.
Item 17. (LA .93) Follows simple instructions.
In this item we turn from
vocal expression to linguistic-
aural comprehension.
The S comes when called, or goes short distances to particular places
as directed. He points to specific objects in pictures when asked, or per-
forms games of pantomime on verbal request (not merely by imitation).
In general this item is satisfied if the S cooperates on verbal request in
very simple activities without need of stimulation through gestures. The
motor responses involved may be waived in the case of physical handicaps
thereto, provided the examiner is satisfied that the linguistic element of
the item is clearly satisfied.
Communication
189
Normative maturation appears
rapidly in the second year of life.
Except for a negligible half-score
at LA 0-1 there is no sex differ-
ence. The mean M-F difference is
.05 years in favor of the boys, CR
.36. The mean total norm is ,93
years, SD .29.
The feeble-minded S's closely
parallel the normative maturation.
The mean N-FM difference is .25
years in favor of the normal sub-
jects, CR 2.48.
6 — i — 2 — r -
LA (normal tot.)
SA( FMtot )■
Item 17: Follows simple instructions.
Med.
Mean
SD
CR
Med.
Mean
8D
M:
.94
.90
.33
N :
,95
.93
.29
F:
.97
.95
.25
FM:
1.11
1.18
.33
D:
-.05
.36
D :
-.25
CR
2.48
It may be noted here that, other things equal, verbal com-
prehension generally precedes verbal expression of like degree,
as reading usually precedes writing of equal difficulty.
Item 31. (LA. 1.70) Uses names of familiar objects.
This item follows Item 10 as the evolution of inarticulate
to articulate speech. (It should be clear that we are not attempt-
ing to trace the psychological development of language, but only
to employ certain points in that development as representing
epochal social uses of speech.)
To satisfy the item, the S readily names a few familiar objects (not
including persons) when these are presented materially or pictorially; he
also calls for such objects by name or refers to them by name sponta-
neously. These "names" may be substitutes for, or corruptions of, dictionary
words, but should be something more than poorly articulated sounds recog-
nizable only as "baby-talk" by those intimately familiar with the S. The
number of words employed need not be extensive, say a half-dozen or more,
but the words should be clearly useful in assisting the S to enlarge his
purposes.
190
Item Specification
Twenty per cent of the
normative boys, and 40
per cent of the girls, suc-
ceed at LA 1-2, and all
thereafter. The mean M-
F difference is .20 years
m favor of the girls. The
mean total norm is 1.70
years.
The feeble-minded S's
show delayed acquisition
of this item in SA versus
normative LA intervals.
The mean N-FM differ-
ence is .45 years in favor
of the normal subjects.
%
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t? r ? 2 ,3 4
LA (normal tot.)
SA( FMtot )■
Med.
Mear
M:
1.88
1.80
F:
1.67
1.60
D:
.20
Item 31: Uses names of familiar objects.
SD CR Med. Mean
N : 1.79 1.70
FM:
D :
2.25
2.15
-.45
SD
.97
CR
This item is not to be confused with the naming of actual
objects, or of objects in pictures, as required in some intelligence
tests, and this comment applies to the other items of this cate-
gory. We are concerned here with the habitual practical iise of
language rather than with aptitude for such expression. Hence
the S should not be "tested" on these items as a substitute for
reports on his habitual performance. It is comparatively easy to
test for language attainment, but quite another thing to evaluate
the everyday use thereof.
Item 34. (LA 1.95) Talks in short sentences.
The child's vocabulary is extended not merely by the addi-
tion of single words but also by simple phrases and subject-
object combinations. These ultimately emerge as short sentences
or equivalent without much regard for polished grammatical
structure. In other words, speech is elaborated at this stage from
the use of single words to integrated word combinations which
have the effect of sentence forms of speech.
To satisfy the item, the S uses speech which includes short sentences,
meaningful phrases or subject-object combinations for simple conversa-
tion. The range of speech is defined as including a vocabulary of about 25
words or more, and the expressions are practically useful within these
Communication
191
limits to satisfy the child's social wants or to express his ideas, being some-
thing more than baby talk or mere repetitive speech, and revealing instead
the child's practical progress in the adaptive use of language.
The performance ma-
tures normatively be-
tween LA's 1-3 years.
The girls excel the boys
by a mean difference of
.50 years. The mean total
norm is 1.95 years, SD
.52.
The SA curve for the
feeble-minded S's paral-
lels the normative LA
curve. The mean N-FM
difference is .70 years in
favor of the normal sub-
jects, CR 3.61.
LA (normal by sex)"*-' ' ' LA (normal "tot)
SA( FMtot. )
Item 34: Talks in short sentences.
Med. Mean SD CR Med. Mean 8D CR
M: 2.17 2.20 .53 N : 1.9S 1.95 .52
F: 1.79 1.70 - FM: 2.50 2.65 .67
D: .50 - D : -.70 3.61
Item 44. (LA 3.15) Relates experiences.
Speech develops rapidly
from the use of isolated sen-
tences and phrases to what
might be termed paragraph
speech.
The S now engages in continuous conversation, such as relating simple
experiences, or telling (unprompted) simple short stories. This use of
speech involves sequential ideation with coherence and relevant detail. Or
negatively, the speech should not be incoherent, irrelevant or flighty, but
192
Item Specification
PLUS
loo'-
should reveal definite continuitj of thought. The range of vocabulary will
be extended above that of Item 34, and the language forms (including
nouns, pronouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs) will be somewhat elaborated,
but the speech structure is less important than its useful significance.
This performance ma-
tures rapidly for the
normative girls between
LA's 2-4; the boys show
some relative delay in
reaching full success. The
mean M-F difference is
.20 years in favor of the
girls, CR .43. The mean
total norm is 3.15 years,
SD .97.
The feeble-minded S's
parallel the normative in
later SA versus LA in-
tervals. The mean N-FM
difference is .90 years in
favor of the normal sub-
jects, CR 2.78.
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aA< FMtvb
Item 44: Relates experiences.
Med. Mean 8D CB Med. Mean SD CB
M: 2.96 3.25 1.14 N : 3.0O 3.15 .97
F: 3.07 3.05 .75 FM: 4.05 4.05 1.03
D: .20 .43 D : -.90 2.78
Item 58. (LA 5.23) Prints simple wards.
In the literate social environment writing may be used as
a substitute for vocal speech. This yields remote or delayed
(engraved) communication, and consequently represents a
significant social advance over talking. In the tjrpical U. S.
American environment the child soon learns to write or to print
words, printing ordinarily preceding writing as an easier
accomplishment. At this stage, the performance is of but
limited social usefulness except as the forerunner of more
extensive writing.
This early stage of writing is employed in this item as the legible
printing or writing of the S's first name, or a few familiar words of three
or four letters, not using copy. This may be done either on the child's own
initiative or from dictation. Exact spelling is not essential, but the words
should be legible and intelligible. They may be common words of 3 or 4
letters, or they may be proper names. The writing may be done with pencil,
or crayon, or even by means of a child's typewriter.
Communication
193
This accomplishment matures normatively between LA's 4-7 yeare.
The mean M-F diiference is .35 years in favor of the girls, CR 1.00. The
mean total norm is 5.23 years, SD .77.
The feeble-minded S's show relative SA delay and larger SD when
compared with the normative S's. The mean N-FM difference is 1.45 years,
CR 3.06.
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Item 33
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SA( FMtot )"*
Item 58: Frints simple words.
Med.
Mean
SD
CR
Med.
Mean
SD
M:
5.50
5.40
S7
N :
5.21
5.23
.77
F:
5.05
5.05
.61
FM:
6.72
6.68
1.92
D:
.35
1.00
D :
-1.45
CR
3.06
Performance on this item is to some extent influenced b3^
instruction at home or at school. This factor is more apparent
among the feeble-minded subjects who respond or aspire but
poorly to academic instruction. Note that a majority of the
normal S's succeed prior to LA 6, the usual age for beginning
school, whereas the feeble-minded S's are noticeably delayed in
spite of an advantage of about fifteen years in life age plus the
benefits of intensive instruction. It has been said that the normal
child learns whereas the defective must be taught, meaning that
the former needs chiefly favorable opportunity, while the latter
needs repeated systematic drill.
194
Item Specification
^^Z
^j^:^
-J
Item 63. (LA 6.15) Uses pencil for writing.
Script writing is for most
persons genetically more diffi-
cult than print writing, but
typically is readily acquired
as the writing vocabulary
increases in extent and com-
plexity. In some instances,
however, print writing (li-
brary script) is employed as
a substitute for ordinary
script, rather than as a fore-
runner. If print writing is
developed in this manner it
may be used as a substitute
for script writing.
This evolution of writing also involves more extended vo-
cabulary, longer words, more complex spelling and more in-
volved meanings. It also typically employs more delicate means,
such as lead pencil, or pen and ink, to replace crayons or slate
and pencil. The typewriter may be substituted as a more complex
mode of writing.
%
PU
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
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LA (normal by aex)4^
LA (normal tot) ^
SA( FMtot )"^
Item
63:
Uses
pencil for writing
Med. Mean
8D
CR
Med.
M: 6.50 6.30
.73
N : 6.13
F: 5.90 6.00
.85
FM: 7.50
D: .30
.81
D :
Mean
6.15
8.13*
-1.93
8D
.80
1.71*
CB
4.5S
*100% assumed at SA 12-13
Communication 195
The item is satisfied if the S writes legibly with pencil or pen a dozen
or more simple words, and at this stage does so with reasonably correct
spelling. The words may be of three or four letters or more in length. They
are to be written on the S's own initiative or from dictation, rather than
from copy. The words may be written independently of grammatical struc-
ture.
The normative performance is about one year in advance of Item 58.
Maturation is rapid and consistent between LA's 5-8 years for both sexes.
The mean M-F diflFerence is .30 years in favor of the girls, CR .81. The
mean total norm is 6.15 years, SD .80.
The feeble-minded performances are markedly delayed in SA versus
LA groups, MTith larger SD. The mean N-FM difference is 1.98 years in
favor of the normal subjects, CR 4.58, in spite of more advanced Kfe
ages and more persistent instruction on the part of the feeble-minded
subjects.
It may be well to repeat that we are not here concerned
with the products of teaching as educational achievement, but
rather with the use of literacy for socially helpful purposes. In
the ordinary environment the degrees of literacy represented in
this scale may easily be acquired independently of formal teach-
ing. In fact the items have been so formulated as to avoid the
need for formal education on the assumption that as the child
feels the need for self-expression in reading and writing he can
readily command the commonly available facilities for learning.
This is not to deny, of course, that in some environments there
is relatively little demand or opportunity for acquiring literacy,
or that the environment may offer but a limited urge to the
acquisition of these abilities. Nevertheless, under such condi-
tions the person concerned is actually less competent than the
person who has had the advantages of such environmental
stimulation. We are most immediately concerned with the meas-
urement of social maturity as such in the standard environment,
rather than with explaining the lack of such maturation by
apologizing for the environment. In short, we must distinguish
between the measurement of social competence and the inter-
pretation of such measurements. It is to be assumed that the
examiner will always interpret the results of the measurement
in relation to the handicaps which affect the person examined.
196
Item Specification
Item 73. (LA 8.55) Reads on oivn initiative.
Printing and writing typ-
ically succeed reading, wheth-
er by reading we mean the
mere recognition of single
words or the comprehension of
Vv^ords arranged in meaningful
relations. Because of easier
definition and scoring we have
reversed this genetic sequence
in formulating these items and
have used the writing of sim-
ple words instead of their reading recognition. The later
stages of reading are more readily defined and scored than the
early stages, whereas the reverse is true for writing.
As a child learns to read he does so first for his own satis-
faction or pleasure ; the process of reading has but little social
usefulness until about the fourth grade level of reading is ac-
complished. Since we are here concerned with the independent
uses to v/hich reading is put, we omit merely scholastic reading
performed as school tasks. The examiner will discover (as we
have) how diflEicult it is to evaluate the practical employment of
scholastic attainment.
This item-performance matures steadily for boys between LA's 6-11;
for girls the range is the same, but there is a marked spurt at LA 8
and a corresponding lapse at LA 9. The mean M-F difference is .50
years in favor of the
girls, CR .75. The mean
total norm is 8.55 years,
SD 1.45.
The feeble-minded S's
show delayed onset with
later rapid rise in SA
versus normative LA
groups. The mean N-FM
difference is 1.43 years
in favor of the normal
subjects, CR 2.94 (full
success assumed for SA's
above 11-12 and con-
firmed in total VTS
sample except for one of
15 S's at SA 12).
Item 73 : Reads on ovm initiative.
%
PLl
100
90
80
70
«0
50
40
30
20
10
JS
r"
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73
r,
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m
non
nal
lys
L
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irr.
nor
F
Uto
tot
t
ri
0-j
ri
Med.
Mean
8D
CB
Med.
Mean
8D
CR
M:
9.07
8.80
1.44
N :
8.27
8.55
1.45
F:
7.92
8.30
1.42
FM:
10.68
9.98*
1.55*
D:
.50
.75
D :
-1.43
2.94
*1009c assumed at SA 12-13
Communication
197
The item is expressed as the spontaneous and effective use of reading
(at about 4th grade level of difficulty) for personal desires, needs or satis-
factions. This is commonly expressed in the reading of informative notes,
simple stories, signs, comic strips, movie titles, simple news items, and the
like. Generally speaking, we may observe that the practical use of reading
lags definitely behind the formal accomplishment of reading. In other
words, the S is usually able to read at a higher level than he actually does
read for his own satisfaction (witness for example the uninspired reading
activities of most adults).
Reading success has until recently been generally employed
as a basis for school-grade promotions. Assuming a child to
enter school at LA 6, fourth-grade reading would typically be
achieved at LA 10. But many normal children are above grade
in reading achievement. Hence it is not a contradiction to find
the average child in this standardization employing fourth-grade
reading at LA 8.55. Likewise the well-recognized comparative
delay in learning to read exhibited by feeble-minded subjects is
in harmony with their use of such reading at mean SA 9.98
years.
Item 78. (LA 9.63) Writes occasional short letters.
This is a practical exten-
sion of Item 63, revealing the
use of writing for distant or
delayed communication.
The item is defined as now and then writing brief letters to friends or
relatives on the S's own initiative or following mild suggestion. This is
done without material help from others as to content, formulation, ordinary
spelling, addressing and mailing. A substitute activity is found in the writ-
ing of notes to immediate friends or the writing of simple instructions of
equivalent scope and difBculty. The most diflScult aspect of this item is the
requirement that the S should address the envelopes (or notes) containins
the communications and provide for mailing (or otherwise sending) the
same. These details are included in order to take the item out of the field
of mere educational achievement and convert it to practical social useful-
ness.
198
Item Specification
Normative success is achieved between LA's 7-13 years. There is a
spurt for the girls at LA 8 followed by a lapse at LA 9, and plateaus for
the boys at LA's 10 and 12. The mean M-F difference is .65 years in favor
of the girls, CR .90. The mean total norm is 9.63 years, SD 1.57.
The performances of the feeble-minded S's in SA groups is closely
similar to that of the normative subjects up to SA 11-12 (the highest SA
affording uniform statistical comparisons). The median difference is .57
years in favor of the feeble-minded subjects. Assuming 95 per cent success
for the feeble-minded at SA 12 and 100 per cent at SA 13 and thereafter
gives a presumptive SA mean of 9.53 years, which is closely comparable
to the LA mean (9.63). Or calculating a fragmentary mean between the
10 and 90 percentiles yields 9.24. Actually the fragmentary data beyond
SA 11-12 show 100 per cent of full plus scores for all S's (N = 15, 7, 6, 4
and 5 respectively for SA's 12, 13, 14, 15 and 16).
%
a i,
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78
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LA (normal tot)
SA ( FM tot )'
Me^.
Mean
SD
M:
9.33
9.95
1.40
F:
9.01?
9.30
1.65
D:
.65
Item 78: Writes occasional short letters.
CR Med. Mean
J90
N :
FM:
D :
9.61
9.04
9.63
8D
1.57
CE
It is probable that the feeble-minded subjects have an ad-
vantage of "more occasion" or greater stimulation to write
letters because of institutional residence and that this absence
from home produces an incentive of sufficient weight to offset
their otherwise presumptive inferiority on this item. It is possi-
ble, too, that more assistance was given these S's than the defini-
tion allows, or than the examiner elicited.
Item 79. (LA 10.30) Makes telephone calls.
In the typical U. S. American environment the prevalence
Communication
19^
of public or private telephones provides an almost universal
and effective means of remote yet immediate communication.
Here vocal speech reflects a facile degree of development, since
the employment of the telephone is materially complicated by
the fact that the conversation is not held vis-a-vis and involves
such related aptitudes as using the telephone directory, recalling
numbers, "pursuing" delayed calls and resolving various difficul-
ties (e.g., no answer, wrong number, unlisted parties).
In addition to conducting a purposive conversation, the S is here re-
quired to employ the entire process of telephoning from looking up numbers
(which involves a fairly diflScult type of reading) and placing calls, to
carrying on a conversation of some serious intent. The item does not re-
quire making long distance calls, and does not include the mechanical diffi-
culties of using automatic or dial phones where such phones are not in
common use. The item is not confined to the use of private or family
telephones, but assumes that the S uses the telephone in general as a com-
monly available means of remote communication. In this the looking up of
numbers and the placing of unfamiliar calls is apparently the most difficult
requirement, which is only to some extent avoided by calling "information."
The item assumes a relatively general use of the telephone rather than its
minimum use as limited to familiar persons and places and to merely social
calls.
%
PLl
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
S
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79
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Item 79
Med. Mean SD
M:
11.10 10.40 1.80
F:
9.37 ? 10.20 2.34
D:
.20
SA ( FMtot )
Makes telephone calls.
CR Med. Mean
.20
N
FM
D
10.50 10.30
8D
2.09
CR
Normative success appears between LA's 7-12 for the boys, and
between LA's 7-14 for the girls, with a spurt for the latter at LA 8,
followed by a lapse at LA 9, and a plateau at LA's 12 and 13. The mean
M-F difference is .20 years in favor of the girls (but with higher SD),
CR .20. The mean total norm is 10.30 years, SD 2.09.
200 Item Specification
The feeble-minded S's show delayed success in SA groups as com-
pared with the normative LA maturation. This is only partly due to
restricted opportunity in the institutional environment, which is somewhat
offset by -f F and + NO scores. Moreover, the feeble-minded maturation
curve is fairly parallel to the normative up to the validation limit of
SA 11-12 years. Since the curve does not reach median success, and no
mean can be estimated, a valid N-FM comparison cannot be made. The
fragmentary data beyond SA's 11-12 show 87 per cent of passes for
SA 12 (N = 15), 93 per cent at SA 13 (N = 7), 100 per cent at SA's 14,
15 and 16 (N = 6, 4 and 6 respectively). These data are practically all
based on " + NO" scores in view of environmental restriction. The curve
based on these fragmentary data coincides with the normative curve at
SA 12 and beyond.
Experience with this item indicates that it is fairly satis-
factory in spite of the variations in opportunity for gaining
successful experience. However, the item is not wholly appro-
priate since many examiners are prone to score the performance
specifically rather than generally. Answering the telephone is
of course much easier than placing calls, as calling familiar
persons from familiar places is easier than calling strangers
by public phone. Likewise, sociable use of the telephone is much
simpler than business use. The corresponding use of telegraph
was not considered because of relative infrequency of use.
Item 81. (LA 11.20) Answers ads; purchases by mail.
This extends Item 78 to
written communication for
commerce by mail. It repre-
sents a concrete employment
of literacy for expanding the
range, and perhaps increasing
the efficiency of merchandis-
ing. It is also a means of
enlarging one's field of in-
formation and capitalizes a
•'^^ ^^^^^^^^ well-recognized tendency of
young adolescents and many
adults to enlarge the sphere of
contact and experience beyond local or personal resources. This
is a somewhat whimsical recognition of the modern pre-adoles-
cent susceptibility to current advertising of the box top, juvenile
magazine or newspaper contest variety. Its significance is
attested by the maturation data for LA's 8-14. But its value is
reduced by the individual differences apparent after LA 13.
Communication
201
Yet the performance of this activity does seem to reveal a
practical capitalization of literacy which has some social merit.
The item is defined as responding to newspaper, magazine, radio, or
other advertising by mailing coupons, requesting samples, sending for in-
formative literature, and purchasing from catalogs. The item, therefore,
includes the same details as Item 78, and to some extent Item 73, but at a
somewhat higher level of operation and with a significant modification in
purpose.
Normative success shows fairly smooth and rapid development from
LA 7 to LA 13, but with delayed fulfillment (presumably due to individual
differences) between LA's 13-19. The relatively long tail produces a large
SD and a noticeable difference between median and mean values. The mean
M-F difference (note interlacing graphs) is .90 years in favor of the boys
(with higher SD for the girls). CR .60. The mean total norm is 11.20 years,
SD 3.21. The total mean versus total median difference is 1.07 years in
favor of the median.
The performances of the feeble-minded S's show a marked tendency
toward later acquisition in SA versus normative LA groups, but success
reaches only the 23-percentile at SA 11-12. This difference is only partly
due to environmental restriction or lack of stimulation, since -1-F and +N0
scores serve to offset such lack of opportunity or occasion. Moreover there
is no serious prohibition to such performance in the institution at which
these subjects reside. The fragmentary data beyond SA 11-12 show 40 per
cent at SA 12 (N=15), 43 per cent at SA 13 (N=7), 67 per cent at SA 14
(N=6), 100 per cent at SA 15 (N=4) and 80 per cent at SA 16 (N=5).
— 1
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Item 81: Answers ads; purchases hy mail.
Med. Mean SD CR Med. Mean BD OR
M: 9.50 10.75 2.59 N : 10.13 11.20 8.21
F: 10.21 11.65 3.67 FM: - - -
D: -.90 .60 D :
202-
iTKlf SPECmCATION
Item 84. (LA 11.58) Enjoys books, newspapers, magazines.
nL^nX/sXaJ^ X^vX-aX/'^J.^
This item requires
about sixth-grade lit-
eracy as compared
with fourth-grade for
Item 73.
The item is defined as the useful application of reading achicTement for
pFactical information or personal enjoyment in reading sources such as
story or news columns in newspapers, magazines, books of fiction, adven-
ttoire, travel, and so on. There is some presumption that this degree of read-
iing promotes the extension of self-education as well as personal pleasure.
The item assumes that ample reading material is generally accessible
either at or outside the home, and further assumes some inclination on the
part of the S to seek out such reading opportunities rather than merely
to respond to them when readily available. The item may also include more
extended reading of catalogs than is called for by Item 81, more serious
reading of advertisements, and other socially useful reading activities.
Performance on this item matures normatively between LA's 10-13,
with one partial success at LA 9 and four partial failures between LA's
14-17 years. The mean M-F difference is .35 years in favor of the girls, CR
.46. The mean total norm is 11,58 years, SD 1.63.
The feeble-minded S's show delayed success in SA versus normative
LA groups, reaching the 35-percentile at SA 11-12. The fragmentary data
beyond SA 11-12 show 47 per cent of passes at SA 12 (N = 15), 86 per
cent at SA 13 (N=7), and 100 per cent at SA's 14, 15 and 16 (N=6, 4 and
5 respectively).
Communication
203
%
PL!
100
90
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Item 84; Enjoys hooks, netcspapers, magazines.
Med. Mean 8D CR Med. Mean SB CR
M: 11.33 11.75 1.55 N : 11.65 11.58 1.63
F: 11.14 ? 11.40 1.69 FM: - - -
D: .35 .46 D :
The normative performance on this item represents sixth-
grade capitalization of reading achievement for social purposes,
which is not attained by all subjects until LA 17 years. Even
the highest grade morons seldom succeed in academic subjects
beyond the 6th school grade. This is confirmed by the relativeb/"
small numbers represented below SA 12, and even these are
apparently scored generously as to the useful outcome of such
reading. Eighth-grade academic success represents about the
average school attainment for most people of adolescent years
and beyond.
Item 90. (LA 14.95) Communicates by letter.
This item extends Item 78 by requiring more serious pur-
pose and more serious content of written communication.
The item includes the writing of substantial business or social letters to
persons other than (or in addition to) personal friends, the exchange of
letters for giving and receiving of serious information, the giving or ac-
knowledging of serious instructions, and the exchange of significant per-
sonal or general news. The item therefore involves something more than
merely friendly or perfunctory "chit-chat'' correspondence and puts, a
premium on the use of corresponding for mature purposes. It a!so
represents a more sophisticated extension of Item 31.
204
Item Specification
The normative pro-
gression for this item
shows a fairly steady-
though not very rapid
evolution between LA's
10-19 years. The mean
M-F difference is ,40
years, in favor of the
girls, CR .33. The mean
total norm is 14.95 years.
SD 2.59.
The feeble-minded S's
(graph omitted) show
only one partial success
(at SA 10) which may be
a mistaken or over-gen-
erous score.
, (Boraal by aex>i^
Item 90: Communicates by letter.
Med. Mean 8D CR
M: 15.79 15.15
F: 15.00 14.75
2,33
2.81
D:
Tot.
.40
^3
15.64 14.95 2,59
This item normatively represents about Sth-grade or early
high-school level of scholastic attainment. The fact that it is
ultimately passed by all of the normative S's, many of whom
have not had formal schooling beyond the 8th grade, shows good
capitalization of writing for practical purposes. Similarly, the
absence of success on this item for the feeble-minded subjects
confirms the observation that few of them reach 8th-grade at-
tainment and still fewer make practical use of such attainment.
Item 91. (LA 15.35) Follows current events.
GOMMUNICATION
205
This item extends Item 84. It involves mature reading, seri-
ous conversation, intelligent use of radio, attendance at lectures,
and so on as a means of keeping vi^ell-informed. The level of
activity involved is presumed to be above eighth-grade equiv-
alent as to content and difficulty.
The item is formulated so as to include the intelligent discussion of
general news, national and local sports, scientific and cultural developments,
political and economic progress, or general events of wide interest. ^ It
further assumes continued interest in such news and the use of information
so gained for critical evaluation or controversial discussion. The item
therefore assumes that the S keeps himself informed in various ways
on matters of broad social interest which in the long run increase his
value as a citizen or have some serious bearing on his affairs and
community welfare. Performance obviously should rate well above petty
news-mongering.
The normative maturation progresses rather regularly for the boys,
and by serrated stages for the girls, between LA's 12-19, with one par-
tial success at LA 11 and three failures after LA 19. The mean M-F differ-
ence is 1.20 years in
favor of the boys, CR .91.
The mean total norm is
15.35 years, SD 2.86. The
mean versus median dif-
ference is 1.04 years in
favor of the median.
The feeble-minded sub-
jects show no success on
this item up to SA 11-12.
The fragmentary data
beyond SA 11 show 1
success at SA 12 (N=
15), 1 at SA 13 (N=7),
1 at SA 14 (N=6), 1 at
SA 15 (N=4) and 4 at
SA 16 (N=5).
PLl
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91
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LA (normal by sex)"
Item 91: Follows current events.
M:
F:
D:
Tot.:
Med. Mean
14.25 14.75
15.17? 15.95
-1.20
14.31 15.35
8D
2.51
3.06
2.86
CR
.91
The definition of this item would lead one to expect its mat-
uration as an average adult item. However, it is readily passed
by high-school students. Among adults of less than 10th grade
attainment it reflects a good capitalization of education or a
form of communication which functions rather independently of
formal iastruction. This is to be desired, since otherwise formal
schooling would constitute a specific environmental advantage to
some subjects and its lack a handicap to others.
206 Item Specification
Summary. In summarizing this category we may profitably
collect the comments scattered throughout the items. We are not
here directly concerned with the psychological development of
language nor with specific educational achievement, but rather
with the social evolution of language use and with various means
and significant levels of communication. The early items deal
with the elementary genesis of immediate conversation while
the later items deal with rather general and (in our society)
easily acquired employment of reading and writing for remote,
delayed and recorded speech.
The use of literacy has here been conceived as relatively
independent of need for formal schooling since there are many
non-scholastic avenues by means of which literacy may be ac-
quired. Likewise, the normal sequences of reading and writing
have been ignored in favor of a progression that indicates the
most readily evaluated evidences of maturation in communica-
tion. These progressions as to literacy have been only loosely
related to school grade attainment. The tise of literacy is
observed as coming either before, after, or independently of
equivalent school-grade standing. Successful advance in educa-
tion, whether formally or informally obtained, and with due
regard for economic factors, is itself one expression of compe-
tence which both yields and reflects other social assets.
Our first formulation of the items involving literacy was
based on school achievement, whether formally or informally
accomplished, and especially on the essential relation of reading
and writing to other forms of educational attainment. These
early formulations were seriously revised because of the wide-
spread differences encountered in educational attainment and
the recognition of the fact that the average adult has not gone
beyond the eighth grade in formal academic schooling. Further
consideration of these questions also revealed a rather weak
capitalization of educational advantages for social purposes, a
fact so obvious as to constitute a major professional educational
problem in conceiving as well as accomplishing the social objec-
tives of public education.
Another difficulty in the communication items is found in
the environmental limitations which surround education and the
fact that the education most commonly referred to is still called
compulsory education. The self-initiated educational attain-
ments are even unjustly disparaged in contrast with achieve-
ments gained from formal schooling. The items in this category
therefore as applied to environments and persons of limited
educational opportunity cannot but reflect the social consequen-
Communication 207
ces of such limitation, for there seems to be a definite correlation
between social progress and the level of man's education, or even
the extent to which education is a special privilege. It would
therefore seem that not too much allowance should be made for
lack of educational opportunity in measuring social competence ;
the evaluation of that competence in terms of the individual's
undeveloped aptitudes as compared with his actual performances
requires realistic orientation.
The professional educator and many examiners may wonder
why we have not tapped such other educational disciplines as
arithmetic, geography, history, literature, the sciences, and so
on. Our reason for this is that we encountered insurmountable
difficulties in obtaining information as to how these disciplines
are socially capitalized. Thus even so fundamental a subject as
arithmetic seems to be developed in school to much higher levels
than the subsequent purposes to which this is put. Consequently
we were obliged to incorporate such evidence indirectly in other
items. We have even encountered serious difficulty in determin-
ing the extent to which children read and write ; either little use
is made of these accomplishments or the informants are not
intimately acquainted with the manner or extent to which educa-
tional achievements are capitalized.
The social consequences of education beyond the elementary
three R's are observed chiefly in occupational pursuits and in
general intellectual culture. The subject-matter of the educa-
tional branches beyond about the 6th school grade will therefore
be found capitalized in the occupational items beyond Item 98,
in the self-direction items beyond Item 99 and in the socializa-
tion items beyond 103. This affords indirect evaluation of scho-
lastic knowledge by employing the more general situations in
which such knowledge is socially capitalized. We do not overlook
the rather personal advantages of education for enriched living,
but such outcomes are not strictly relevant for present purposes.
It has also been difficult to include the use of specialized
means of communications (e.g., telegraph, typewriter, short-
hand and other recording devices, publicity and advertising
mediums, scientific and mathematical symbolism) because of
environmental, scholastic and economic differences. Moreover,
while these greatly facilitate they do not entirely replace more
natural, more fundamental, more readily available and there-
fore more universal modes of expression.
Some comment may also be offered regarding the use of
these items with handicapped subjects such as the blind, the
deaf, the crippled and the feeble-minded. The primary handicap
208 Item Specification
of the feeble-minded is constitutional mental subnormality, in
respect to which the educational handicap is a secondary con-
sequence. The deaf are handicapped vocally and aurally and this
indirectly produces some linguistic handicaps even when means
of linguistic expression (manual signs, lip-reading, touch read-
ing, and so on) are formally acquired. The communication diffi-
culties encountered by blind, crippled and neurologically affected
subjects are self-evident and must be taken into account at face
value and appraised accordingly. The blind and the deaf may
be competent among themselves in language use and devices.
Yet they may be incompetent in relation to the hearing and the
sighted, and vice versa.
These principles become extended when related to foreign
languages or to regional differences in language which some-
times result in embarrassments or inadequacies in the absence
of interpreters. Similar difficulties are encountered in the
"language" of money. (We are reminded of the provincial New
Yorker who expected to be annoyed in Rome, patronized in
Paris, confused in Moscow and so-sorried in Tokyo, but thought
that he had a right to get on smoothly in London and Chicago!)
Sex differences for items in this category are negligible as
to amounts and low as to reliabilities. The highest CR is 1.00
(Item 58) with M-F difference of .35 years (one-fourteenth of
its base). The largest M-P difference is 1.20 years (Item 91)
with CR .91 (D one-twelfth of its base). However, such slight
differences as are apparent are in favor of the normative girls
on 12 of the 15 items.
In contrast, the N-FM differences are relatively large
and reliable for nearly all the items. This is in accord with the
well-recognized linguistic and literate inferiority of the feeble-
minded in spite of advanced life age and intensive instruction —
an observation which adds weight to the significance of this
category for social competence. The CR's for the six items for
which the data yield standard computations range from 2.48 to
4.58 (Items 17, 34, 44, 58, 63 and 73). The corresponding D's
range from .25 years (Item 17) to 1.98 years (Item 63), are
relatively large in proportion to their bases, and are all in favor
of the normative subjects. The last 6 of the 15 items do not
yield FM SA means.
Communication
209
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210 Item Specification
Self-Direction
"Say Pap, how soon will I be old enough
to do just as I please?"
"I don't know. Son; nobody has ever lived
that long yet." — Unidentified
The concept of social competence as herein set forth places
heavy emphasis on personal independence and the exercise of
individual responsibility. The principal component of such self-
sufficiency is self-direction. It is to a greater or less degree
present at the core of all items of the Scale and corresponds in
principle to Spearman's g factor in general intelligence. How-
ever, some behavior so specifically reveals this factor as to
warrant a special category of self-direction items.
No doubt our point of view has been specifically influenced
by experience with the feeble-minded. Viewing mental deficiency
in terms of its effects, weakness in self -direction is a conspicuous
characteristic of the feeble-minded, and one which colors all
their social performances. Since this scale was originally de-
signed to measure the social competence of the feeble-minded,
the emphasis on self -direction throughout the Scale as a whole
is readily appreciated.
In the early maturation of social competence, self -direction
appears as self-help and these modes of behavior have already
been presented. In the locomotion category, self-direction is
again apparent but with a different content; and similarly for
the other categories of the Scale. But a definite group of items
may now be formulated which reveal self-direction somewhat
more specifically. These include items which do not seem to fit
in very well in other groupings from the point of view of logical
arrangement.
The period of adolescence is specially characterized by the
desire for social freedom in personal conduct. This expresses
itself in a gradual breaking away from authority, which is fol-
lowed in early adulthood by the assumption of responsibility and
authority for others. This is most clearly expressed in the han-
dling of money, in the looking after all of one's needs, and finally
in performing these same offices for others.
It is therefore not surprising that specific self-direction
items appear principally in the adolescent and adult age-periods.
Self-Direction
211
Nor should it be surprising if failure on these items is prevalent
among the feeble-minded both in and out of institutions since
the mentally deficient seldom reach, and never by definition
exceed, the adolescent overall level of social maturation. Some
feeble-minded at large in the community have complete freedom
in these respects, but they perform these items with such
limited success as to reveal their feeble-mindedness in these
very ways.
In scoring these items the examiner will therefore need to
be careful to pay special attention to the manner in which, and
the conditions under which, these items are performed since in
them will be found a definite reflection of that prudent foresight
and successful management of one's own affairs which is essen-
tial to all acceptable definitions of social adequacy.
The 14 items in this category extend from LA 5 to LA
25+, with 1 each at years V, IX, XI and XII, 3 at XV-XVIII,
4 at XVIII-XX, 2 at XX-XXV, and 1 at XXV+. That is, 10 of
the 14 items cluster around late adolescence and early adult-
hood. Two series are apparent, one with regard for money and
purchasing (Items 60, 76, 87, 94, 95, 100, 102, 105 and 112),
the other dealing with self -controlled behavior (Items 83, 93,
97, 99 and 101). Two of the last-mentioned (Items 93 and 99)
might have been placed in the locomotion category, but seem
more suitably oriented here. Item 97 is somewhat apart from
the others in scope.
Item 60. (LA 5.83) Is trusted with money.
Most societies put a
special premium on the ac-
quisition and conservation of
material possessions. In our
culture this is most readily
expressed in the careful use of
money. Economic responsibil-
ity is therefore a major con-
sideration in the later stages
of social development. An
early evidence of this respon-
sibility is observed when the
individual is trusted with
small sums of money at the
messenger level.
212
Item Specification
Here the S is deemed to be careful of money when sent to make pay-
ments or explicit purchases. At this level it is not necessary that the S
be able to make change, but only that he be responsible in the care of
money and in using it as directed. Since money is such a general medium
of obtaining satisfaction, it offers obvious temptations and its careful use
involves a definite degree of trustworthiness.
The normative data show rapid and steady progression between LA's
4-8 years, without appreciable sex difference. The mean M-F difference is
.15 years in favor of the girls, OR .28. The total norm is 5.83 years, SD 1.12.
The feeble-minded S's show striking retardation in SA versus norma-
tive LA groups. The mean N-FM difference is 2.35 years, CR 5.21. There
is, of course, some but not complete prohibition to this performance in the
institutional environment of these subjects, but this is evident only at
those SA's where the value of money is not properly regarded, and is
somewhat offset by the use of +F and -f NO scores. That the item reaches
full success at SA 11-12 is evidence of this and of the dependence of such
success on SA itself. Indeed, this is the only item in this category on which
the feeble-minded S's in our item validation sample ultimately attain
100 per cent of passes. Fragmentary data for S's beyond SA 11-12 are
included in the item discussion where pertinent, but are without sta-
tistical import except as trends. In some instances N-FM median dif-
ferences are noted when the SA ogive for feeble-minded S's below
SA 11-12 reaches or passes the 50-percentile but without attaining the
100-percentile. Such comparisons should be considered as only suggestive
rather than dependable.
.
%
PLI
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
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Item 60: 7s trusted with money.
Med.
Mean
SD
CR
Med.
Mean
SD
M:
5.50
5.90
1.00
N :
5.59
5.83
1.12
F:
5.64
5.75
1.23
FM:
8.23
8.18
1.62
D:
.15
.28
D :
-2.35
CR
5.21
Self-Direction
213
Item 76. (LA 9.38) Makes minor purchases.
This extends Item 60 to the actual expenditure of money,
as in the purchasing of useful articles, especially those involving
some choice and discretion as to their nature and cost.
In this item the S (1)
exercises some discreet
choice in the purchase
of useful minor articles
and safeguards them as
the equivalent of money,
(2) displays care and
judgment in the hand-
ling of money, and (3)
makes correct change
in small amounts (say
about one dollar or
more). In making such
minor purchases (e.s>,
school supplies, toilet art-
icles, trinkets, little gifts)
the S is relatively inde-
pendent or can be relied
upon to follow instruc-
tions of a more serious
extent than those inr
volved in Item 60, and
which may involve judg-
ment in carrying out in-
structions. In performing this item the money involved may be the
property of the S himself (allowance, gifts, earnings), or may be
entrusted to him as the agent for others.
This performance matures normatively between LA's 7-12 for the boys,
and 8-11 for the girls. The mean M-F difference is .25 years in favor of
the girls, CR .40. The mean total norm is 9.38 years, SD 1.34.
The feeble-minded S's show delayed maturation in SA versus normative
LA intervals, reaching 65 per cent of success at SA 11-12. The median N-FM
difference is 1.65 years in favor of the normal subjects. A satisfactory
mean SA cannot be cal-
culated. The fragmentary
data beyond SA 11-12
show 90 per cent at SA
12 (N=15), 86 per cent
atSAlS (N=7),100per
cent at SA 14 (N=6),
SA 15 (N=4) and SA
16 (N=5). These data
are only slightly influ-
enced by +N0 and +F
scores. The comment on
Item 60 applies with
equal weight to this item.
%
PLl
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
S
r
1 /
/
f
ten
76
1
/
Itcn
76
1
y
/
7
/
/
7
J
/
1
-FJ
F-1
'
N-
/
/
/ /
e_
-M
/
y
/
r
/
/
>
<'<'
/
^'
S^
I
,•
t^
nor
mal
.ys
ex)-
1 1
2 1
s:.
SA(
nor
F
1
mal
Uto
tot:
b i
1 1
i 1
I..
Item 76 : Makes minor purchases.
Med.
Mean
SD
CR
Med.
Mean
8D
M:
9.36
9.50
1.37
N :
9.25
9.38
1.34
F:
8.50
9.25
1.31
FM:
10.90
-
-
D:
.25
.40
D :
-
CB
214 Item Specification
Item 83. (LA 11.45) Is left to care far self or others.
This is one of a group of items involving accountability for
personal safety and discreet behavior when freed from the
supervision of elders for protracted periods. On first considera-
tion this appears to be a special case of "locomotion" and the
examiner may be surprised to find that contrary to first expecta-
tion it represents a higher stage of performance than Item 77
(Goes about home town freely) . This is explained in part by the
fact that in the locomotion category the individual has definite
behavior goals, and the absorption of interest in these tends to
make their performance simpler than does remaining in a given
place. In other words, when the individual is left to his own
devices for protracted periods without supervision the trust-
worthiness involved seems to be of higher degree. The difficulty
on this item is increased by the assumption that the S may not
only be left to care for himself, but may be made responsible
for the supervision of others independently of adult social con-
tacts and consequently is relied on in case of emergency.
The item is satisfied if the S is sometimes left alone, or on his own
responsibility, for an hour or longer at home or at work and in so doing is
successful in directing his own behavior, or is responsible for the behavior
of others who may be left in his care. It is assumed that in so doing the S
is resourceful regarding such emergencies (fire, callers, accidents, phone
calls) as may arise and is trustworthy in respect to his personal conduct,
that is, does not get into difficulties under these circumstances. Consequent-
ly this apparently simple item is seen to involve not only responsibility for
the S's own actions, but his responsibility in relation to events which he
might or might not initiate and in respect to which his behavior is not
controlled or assisted by others.
This performance shows rather slow and somewhat irregular matura-
tion, with consequently high SD, between LA's 7-16. There is a sex differ-
ence of from two to four years between LA's 10-14 which presumably re-
flects the greater hazards, or fear of hazards which attend girls in the
period just before adolescence. The mean M-F difference is 1.40 years in
favor of the boys, CR 1.13. The mean total norm is 11.45 years, SD 2.72.
The feeble-minded S's are not markedly different from the normative
in success on this item in SA versus LA groups up to SA 11-12. This may
be due to more generous scoring since the item would be more readily
passed in the institutional environment because of closer social contacts.
Moreover, most of these successes are +F and +N0 scores which on this
item are rather difficult to assign. Few institutionalized feeble-minded chil-
dren or adults are left alone or to care for others except under unusual
circumstances.
The progression of the feeble-minded S's does not reach the median
within the range of the validation. Hence conventional central tendency
comparisons cannot be made. The fragmentary data beyond SA 11-12 show
67 per cent at SA 12 (N=:15), 100 per cent at SA 13 (N=7), 83 per cent
at SA 14 (N=6) and 100 per cent for SA's 15 and 16 (N=4 and 5).
Self-Direction
215
^T
PLl
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
JS"'
A
^r
/"
y
/'
iten
83
/
V
r
tcrr
83
/
^
/
/
/
/
y
/
/^
,— F
/
^
/I
\
jl
y
M-
l
^^
f
>
^
-FM
/
f '
N-
~^j
'r
— •'
-/
J,
(<i»
-.'.
^1
/
(L
^
1
,
\M
aari
nail
/vse
1
rt 1
1 1
i I
S 1
4 1
5 1
fl .
LA (normal tot.)
SA ( FM tot. )
10 11 12 13 14 1
\ 16 1
\...
Item 83: Is left to care for self or others.
Med. Mean 8D CR Med. Mean SD
M: 10.00 10.75 2.33
F: 13.63 12.15 2.91
D: -1.40
1.13
N
FM
D
CR
11.25 11.45 2.72
Item 87. (LA 13.00) Buys own clothing accessories.
This extends Item
76, involving wider
choice and discretion,
larger sums and more
responsible use of
money, and increased
responsibility for de-
cisions. The item has
been made specific to
the purchase of arti-
cles of clothing in
order to avoid the
variable complica-
tions encountered in
the general expendi-
ture of money, the
purchase of clothing
being a relatively
universal type of ex-
penditure.
In satisfying this item the money used may be either supplied or
earned, or the purchases may be made on authorized credit. The articles
216
Item Specification
purchased are defined as minor articles of personal clothing such as ties,
ribbons, undergarments, gloves, shoes, and so on, not including coats, suits,
dresses, hats. The selections are presumed to be made with due regard to
suitability, cost and fit. The S is therefore required to have some judg-
ment of values in respect to prices, materials, quality, style, and in gen-
eral to "get his money's worth." The purchases are also presumed to be
appropriate to the S's financial resources or social status, bearing in mind
that one person's necessity might be another's extravagance, and that thrift
la relative to the S's station in life as well as to his age.
The normative matiiration shows some minor lapses within a gener-
ally consistent progression. The mean M-F difference is .10 years in favor
of the girls, CR .09. The mean total norm is 13.00 years, SD 2.29.
The feeble-minded S's reach 20 per cent of successes at SA 11-12.
Among the scattered subjects beyond this limit success continues to pro-
gress with SA in +F, +N0 and full plus scores. Hence the data reveal the
difficulty of the item rather than lack of opportunity for expression. The
fragmentary data beyond SA 11-12 show 10 per cent at SA 12 (N=15), 29
per cent at SA 13 (N=7), 75 per cent at SA 14 (N=6), 75 per cent at
SA 15 (N=4) and 100 per cent at SA 16 (N=5).
"
%
PLI
100
90
80
70
RO
JS
A
J
f^'
/
/
ter
«87
A
,
f
ten
M7
K
/
w
A
V
•^
'
Y
J
7 '
SO
40
30
20
10
/
F
— 1
(
y
-/'
y
(
/
M
N
/
J
V
1^
J
../
■f-
-F^
<4
1
LA
noi
e*-
_^
;j
A
"1
noi
■ma
lb
f se
IJ
2 1
3 J
4 1
5 ]
6 1
7 1
B--.
(
ma
ra
!.,'
1 1
2 1
3 1
( 1
i 1
i I
1 1
]•-
Item 87: Buys own clothing accessories.
Med. Mean
8D
CR
Med.
Mean
8D
M:
13.07 13.05
2.32
N :
12.75
13.00
2.29
F:
12.50 ? 12.95
2.27
FM:
-
-
.
D:
.10
.09
D :
_
CR
Among the normative S's individual differences are evident
as to personal versus parental dominance. This produces the
minor irregularities of the normative curve, but progressive
maturation ultimately obliterates these differences.
Self-Direction
217
Item 93 (LA 16.13) Goes out unsupervised daytime.
This extends Item
83, and the same gen-
eral principles apply.
Again at first thought
it seems surprising
that this item should
standardize at a later
age than Item 92, or
even Item 77, in the
locomotion category.
The item might of
course, with Item 99,
be included in the
locomotion category for examination purposes.
The normative progressions are smooth and rapid between LA's 15-19
years following "false starts" at LA's 13 and 14. The mean M-F differ-
ence is .25 years in favor of the boys, CR ,27. The mean total norm is 16.13
years, SD 1.96.
None of the feeble-minded S's below SA 12 succeed on this item. The
fragmentary data beyond SA 11-12 show a small scattering of S's with
-}- F, -j- NO, plus-minus or full plus scores. Of course, many feeble-minded
subjects outside of institutions obtain intermittent success on this item,
and some attain full suc-
cess. However, the ever-
present marginal nature
of this success in terms
of prudent behavior is
one indication of such
non-institutional h i g h -
grade mental deficiency.
We are of course here
referring to the genu-
inely feeble-minded and
not to S's of mere intel-
lectual subnormality, or
the so-called subcultural
normal persons, who su-
perficially resemble the
feeble-minded on verbal
mental tests (see ab-
stract p. 466 on the in-
heritance of social com-
petence).
%
PLl
JS
100
f
/■
90
tem
93
/
'J
80
/
/
/
60
f
/
QA
/
1
/•-
10
M-
-*■;
1
Vf
(
llr
Jr
r^
;-l
5 1
! 1
,-1
\ I
> 2
o:;':
LA (normal by sex)"
Item 93: Goes out unsupervised daytime.
M:
F:
D:
Tot.
Med.
16.21
16.25
16.23
Mean
16.00
16.25
-.25
16.13
8D
2.31
1.52
1.96
CB
.27
218 Item Specification
The item is defined as leaving home during the daytime without ac-
counting for one's movements in advance except as a matter of courtesy.
In this the S displays prudent behavior with respect to the opportunities
for misconduct inherent in the related activities.
In this item the S is not merely moving from place to place
with fairly definite absorption of interest in definite objectives,
but is left to his own devices without specific reference to loco-
motion. Consequently there is broader opportunity for getting
into trouble, greater need for trustworthiness, more occasion for
resourcefulness in meeting emergencies, and a larger measure
of self -direction and judgment. This item therefore, like Items
83 and 99, puts more of a premium upon discreet conduct and
wholesome interests than do the locomotion items. Once more,
we do not insist on the categorical segregation of items as
having more than expository value. Yet there do seem to be
significant behavior conditions for some items which at first
thought appear to be integral with others (cf. discussion
introducing Item 83, p. 214).
Item 94. (LA 16.53) Has own spending money.
This enlarges the intent of Item 60 and is somewhat more
generalized in scope than Items 76 and 87.
In performing this item the S is presumed to have independent and
continuing control of small sums of money which he regards as his own
whether earned or received as gifts or allowance. The S uses this money
with reasonable discretion for satisfying fairly serious personal needs
rather than for the gratification of merely personal or immediate pleasures.
The amount of money is of some moment (a dollar or more per week), and
must be regarded in relation to the social or economic status of the S. If
the amounts are too small, then there is not sufficient opportunity for the
exercise of discretion or the satisfaction of genuine needs as opposed to
"candy" money. Moreover, the amount of money in relation to its intended
uses somewhat arbitrarily influences the age location of the item. Children
not infrequently have smaller sums of money and, in some instances, even
larger amounts than one dollar per week as conventional allowances. This
is usually expended at earlier ages rather ingenuously for indulgences
rather than for necessities.
The item is superior to Item 87, and some cue as to its significance is
found in this fact. The examiner, therefore, will need to be cautious in not
scoring this item too lightly. There is some presumption that the S may
earn or is capable of earning a fair sum of money beyond childish allow-
ances and over which he exercises control. There is also some expectation
of significant minor monetary obligations, and consequently a fair amount
of money is needed. Nevertheless, the emphasis is not so much on the
amount of money, since this varies so greatly from person to person, but
rather on the manner in which this money is conserved or expended for
purposes which at earlier ages would have been attended to by the S's
elders. Care must also be taken not to credit this item on the basis of per-
formances in Item 87 or 76 alone. In general such "telescoping" of items
is to be avoided.
Self-Direction
219
The normative maturation pro-
gresses smoothly between LA's
15-19 except for a minor spurt
for the boys at LA 16 and a false
start for both sexes at LA's 13 and
14. The mean M-F difference is
.35 years in favor of the boys,
CR .40. The mean total norm
is 16.53 years, SD 1.86.
The comment for the feeble-
minded S's is the same as for
Item 93.
PLUS
100
/
80
Item
94
j
f\
/
60
50
40
)^
W-«-
1 ,
•
/
/"• —
-F
20
10
■
,Af1
i
«.
J.
0 '(^2 ' 13 11 15 16 17 18 19 1
y..
LA (normal by sex)"^
Item 94:
Has
own spending
Med.
Mean 8D
M:
16.07
16.35 1.94
F:
16.70
16.70 1.77
D:
-.35
Tot.:
16.25
16.53 1.86
CR
.40
Item 95. (LA 17.37) Buys all own clothing.
This enlarges Item
87 as to more ex-
pensive articles of
clothing, those less
frequently purchased,
and those requiring
greater care of selec-
tion as to style, fit and
quality.
In performing this item, the S usually selects and purchases his own
clothing and eflfects, including dresses, suits, overcoats, hats, or at least
makes his own final decisions in their selection and for their payment. In
so doing he may be assisted or advised in matters of taste, fit, style, cost,
and so on, as adults assist or advise each other in these respects, but the
final responsibility for decisions and choice rests with him. These purchases
may be made with his own earned money, or from a substantial allowance,
or by means of authorized credit.
220
Item Specification
The normative maturation is
rapid and smooth between LA's
16-19 (except for a lapse for the
boys at LA's 17 and 18), with
one subject of each sex succeeding
at LA 14, and one of each sex
failing at LA 19. The mean M-F
difference is .45 years in favor of
the girls, CR .58. The mean total
norm is 17.37 years, SD 1.66.
The comment for the feeble-
minded subjects follows in principle
the comment for Item 93.
Item 9£
: Buys all own do
Med.
Mean
8D
M:
17.37 ?
17.60
1.86
P:
17.17
17.15
1.39
D:
.45
Tot.:
17.50
17.37
1.66
0«13'1'J 15 16 17 18 la 20 21.
LA (normal by sex)"
CB
.58
Item 97. (LA 18.48) Looks after own health.
One important detail of self -direction is the conservation
of personal well-being. This involves well-advised precautions in
preventive hygiene, avoiding infectious diseases, obtaining and
following suitable treatment in case of acute illness, organic
difficulty, accident and other medical needs. The significance
of these needs is not diminished by the fact that so few people
effectively attend to them. The exercise of this responsibility is
difficult to define because so frequently the proper safeguards
to health involve the assistance of others.
The item requires that the S observe reasonable safeguards in preven-
tive hygiene, guard against illnesses and accidents, care for himself with
respect to minor ailments, and properly employ medical, dental or nursing
assistance as needed in the more personal aspects of health conservation;
i.e., the ultimate responsibility for sound health rests with the S rather
than with someone else and is successfully discharged (with due regard for
emergencies or situations beyond his personal reasonable control). This
responsibility is rather difficult to determine in practice because of the
varying degrees of responsibility that the S observes at different life ages.
The item is also rendered somewhat uncertain by the all too common in-
attention to health prophylaxis by some, and by too much apprehension in
these matters by others. In our empirical data, however, the maturation
ogive for this item is not appreciably different from other items of the
same age level. The examiner must not be too critical of the judgment dis-
played by the S in performing this item (in view of marked differences in
personal attitudes toward health matters), but rather by the extent to
which he does this for himself, since there is such a wide variety of atti-
tudes, judgment and resourcefulness, in respect to health practices. On th«
Self-Direction
221
other hand, successful performance in these regards seems good evidence
of competence. Obtaining dental care is one of the simpler details of this
item which taken alone does not fully satisfy the item.
The normative maturation is fairly steep between LA's 16-19, with
one partial success at LA 15, a spurt for the boys at LA 16 and a lapse for
the girls at LA 18, and delayed individual success at LA's 20-22. The
mean M-F difference is
.15 years in favor of the
boys, CR .18. The mean
total norm is 18.48 years,
SD 1.71.
For the feeble-minded
S's there is one partial
success (probably gener-
ous scoring) at SA 11-12.
Scattered individual -1-F,
H-NO and full plus scores
appear thereafter but are
not significant for statis-
tical comparison. Within
the institution, health su-
pervision is extended to
substantially all subjects ;
outside the institution
this item seems per-
formed by the feeble-
minded only marginally
if at all.
Item
PLl
r—
IS
\
100
,^
^
80
70
60
50
40
[ten
97
/
•
/•'
1
/
/
■t —
-F
/'
1 "
1
/•
20
M-
A
■J
10
/
f >
1
V
«.
■■t
0«14'15-1(J 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 i4...
M:
P:
D:
Tot.
LA (normal by sex)*^
97: Looks after own health.
Med. Mean 8D CR
18.61 18.40 1.72
18.88 18.55 1.75
-.15 .18
18.74 18.48 1.71
Item 99. (LA 18.70) Goes out nights unrestricted.
This is an enlargement of Item 93, and the discussion for
Items 83 and 93
applies here with sub-
stantially equal force.
This item standard-
izes at a higher age
level than locomotion
Item 96, which at
first thought seems
to include Item 99.
Viewed empirically,
going out at night
without supervision
in the home area does
222
Item Specification
seem to require a higher degree of responsibility than is
required when the S is travelling at some distance from home.
In satisfying this item, the S is free to come and go at night without
supervision, but may as a matter of courtesy account for his absence. This
responsibility for one's own actions after dark presents certain conduct
hazards, and the item requires that the S show discretion in conduct and
does not get into trouble. The item does not require or include staying out
all night. On the contrary, plus score is allowed if the S is required to be at
home by some stated hour.
The item shows rapid maturation for the normative boys between LA's
16-19 with one success at LA 14 and one failure at LA 22. For the girls
there is relative delay in success between LA's 19-22, with full success at
LA 24. The mean M-F difference is .90 years in favor of the boys, CR .91.
The mean total norm is 18.70 years, SD 2.14.
The comment for the feeble-minded subjects follows the same prin-
ciples as that for Item 93.
% PLl
JS
100
90
80
7n
]
\
V
•
•
Iten
99
•
•
1
/
•
IV
•
/
'lO
/
/
40
/•-
J'
.^0
F-»
/
J
20
1
1
/^
-M
10
J
1
)«1
Vi
4 1
k
6 1
7 1
8 1
9 2
) 2
t
[ '^:.
r?.
"%
1 « ••
LA (normal by sex)i
Item 99: Goes out nights unrestricted.
CR
.91
Med.
Mean
8D
M:
18.73
18.25
1.64
F:
19.00
19.15
2.46
D:
-.90
Tot.:
18.79
18.70
2.14
The normative sex difference on this item between LA's
19-22 corresponds to the similar difference on Item 83 between
Self-Direction
223
LA's 10-14, while there is no appreciable sex difference on Item
93. This is an interesting reflection of the greater social risks
which surround girls at these ages (or are by their elders as-
sumed to be present) in relation to the ability of girls to cope
with potential hazards.
Item 100. (LA 19.68) Controls own major expenditures.
This extends Items 94 and 95.
Here the S exercises wider discretion in the personal use of money,
and increased responsibility for larger sums of money. The money involved
may be earned, or may be wholly or in part income or allowance, but no
restraints are placed on its expenditure except as the S may seek general
advice from others where this would reflect good judgment rather than
dependence or irresponsibility. The item assumes that the S provides for
all his financial needs without dictation and therefore assumes control of
a sufficient amount of money to satisfy these needs. In the case of married
persons there might of course be some division of responsibility in the
expenditure of money, in which event the item is satisfied if the S is im-
mediately responsible for a certain department of family or personal ex-
penditures without dictation but perhaps following mutual discussion. It
should be evident that the personal command of spending is warranted by
the manner of its exercise.
The principal normative maturation appears between LA's 18-20 for
the boys and between LA's 18-22 for the girls, with individual successes
and failures before and after these limits. A noticeable sex difference in
favor of the boys occurs
at LA's 20 and 21. The
mean M-F difference is ^,
.75 years in favor of the
boys, CR .85. The mean
total norm is 19.68, SD
1.89.
The feeble-minded S's
show no successes up to
SA 11-12. Thereafter
there are no satisfactory
-l-F or +N0 scores. The
adult feeble-minded out-
side institutions may
pass the item literally
but show marginal dis-
cretion in doing so. In-
deed, really satisfactory
success on this and later
items in this category
raises doubt as to the
likelihood of mental de-
ficiency in a given case.
17 ' 18 _
LA (normal by sex)=^
^r^r
Item 100: Controls own major expenditures.
Med. Mean 8D CR
M: 19.25 19.30 1.71
F: 20.00 20.05 1.99
D- -.75 .85
Tot.: 19.42 19.68 1.89
224 Item Specification
Item 101. (LA 20.53) Assumes personal responsibility.
This performance matures normatively between LA's 18-24, with a
minor sex difference in favor of the boys at LA's 20 and 21. It is the last
item in this category which attains and maintains full normative
success. The mean M-F difference is .45 years in favor of the boys, CR .50.
The mean total norm is
20.53 years, SD 1.90.
None of the feeble-
minded S's pass this item
at SA 11-12 or beyond.
Those feeble-minded out-
side institutions who
exercise this degree of
independence do so with
only marginal success,
which is indeed the cru-
cial measure of their
mental deficiency. Bor-
derline normal persons
succeed, whereas the
feeble-minded fail; con-
sequently this item is
another crucial indica-
tion of social normality
versus deficiency.
PLl
100
90
80
70
JS
■
/
f
item
101
-^
A
, {
/^'
f
)V
60
1
/
'^O
M-
~^l
/
1/
-no
10
1
''O
J
'
10
/
<4.,
mn^
s
J
3<<'i
ri
7 1
8M
92
6- -2
1"2
2--2
3 2
4 2
5...
LA (normal by sex)*
Item 101:
Assumes personal res
Med. Mean SD
M:
19.75 20.30 1.71
F:
20.17 20.75 2.07
D:
-.45
Tot.:
19.86 20.53 1.90
CR
.50
This item reflects a general synthesis of the preceding items in this
category. It incorporates complete accountability for the personal direction
of the S's own affairs subject only to such consultation with others and
such conformity to social conventions as would ordinarily be expected of
young adults in general. The item assumes that the S will be reasonably
considerate of the comfort and welfare of others, and will manage his own
Self-Direction
225
affairs with self-reliance, prudence and foresight. The item of course does
not assume that the S is totally independent socially. On the contrary, in
his occupational activities he may be subservient to others, and marriage
or family living may require some concessions of personal independence
to the amenities or necessities of group living. But the S should clearly not
be dependent on others for successful direction of his personal activities.
Item 102. (LA about 21.5 +) Uses money providently.
This amplifies Item 100 by including thrift and foresight
for maintaining what might be called a state of financial sol-
vency. Allowance must be made for amount of income in
relation to necessary obligations with due regard for variations
in standards of living. In general a Jow income with heavy
obligations and a favorable living standard will reveal success
more readily than a high income with few obligations and poor
standard of living. In another sense, success on this item is
intermediate between Item 100 and Item 105.
To pass this item the S not only has responsible control of his
income but lives circumspectly within it, meets his proper financial
obligations promptly, maintains his credit, and avoids waste and extrava-
gance within a standard of living which is prudently related to his
financial resources and obligations. The item therefore assumes that in
the use of money there will be a reasonable harmony between luxuries
and necessities, and reasonable discretion such as might be reflected in
a balanced budget whether or not the expenditures are budgeted in fact.
% PLl
100
JS
1
f
90
.<•
^•-
t'
-•J
^
s„„
''
-•r-
■ ■;.>
f
^*
~^—
80
70
Item 102
1
A
/ V
.<7
^.
/
V
V
'
!
/
/'
^
^
sj
/
J
60
/
/
/
1
— F
50
40
1
M-
V/'
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R(\
/
/
1
''0
— «^
• /
10
/
/
<i.
^
^■■/
^
nn
5^6' 17-18 19 20 2
[ 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30
LA (normal hv sex^'^*^
Item 102: Use.
f money providently.
Med.
Mean 8D OR
M: 19.83
_
F: 21.00?
.
D:
_
Tot
;
20
.06
.
.
226
Item Specification
The normative curve reveals two successes prior to LA 18, fairly rapid,
increase from LA's 18-22, and individual differences thereafter which pre-
vent completion of the curve. Hence the conventional statistical measures
cannot readily be employed. The boys show a slight but inconsistent advan-
tage over the girls. Total median success is at LA 20 years, with estimated
mean success at about LA 21 + for the boys, LA 22 + for the girls and
LA 21.5+ for the total (see discussion p. 361). The calculation of
estimated means is disturbed by the long tail of the distribution which
fluctuates between 70 and 100 per cent for LA's 20-30 + . This only
confirms the common observation that not all otherwise competent
adults usually spend money prudently.
None of the feeble-minded S's pass this item, nor is it likely that the
mentally deficient outside institutions would satisfy its requirements more
than marginally.
Item 105. (LA 25 +) Provides for future.
This enlarges lUm
102 by assuming that
in the use of money
some provision will
be made for remote
rather than imminent
expenditures. The
item requires that the
S retains his eco-
nomic independence
for protracted pe-
riods and anticipates
future needs. Allow-
ance may be made for
extended rather than
temporary emergen-
cies or financial ca-
tastrophies, but it is
the anticipated pro-
vision for such unexpected events that is reflected in the item.
For satisfying the item, the S consistently sets aside some significant
part of his income as bank savings, insurance, investment, long-time pur-
chases, higher education of dependents, and the like, and this is done with
good financial judgment. Thus the purchase of a home, special home fur-
nishings, or special personal effects, which have a definite investment value
or which can fairly readily be converted to cash, would be acceptable. In
other words, the item requires that the S does not consume his entire in-
come in maintaining a present standard of living and that he defers imme-
diate satisfactions for remote advantages. The item assumes a sufficiently
adequate income to provide for the necessities of life, but recognizes that
the variations in the standard of living makes possible some providing for
the future even at a relatively low income. If the income is considered too
small to permit setting aside appreciable sums for future needs, the item
is scored minus.
Self-Direction
The normative matura-
tion begins at LA 19 and
progresses slowly to me-
dian success at LA 25
with individual differen-
ces in success between 25
and 85 per cent (average
60 per cent) thereafter.
The men excel the women
at LA'S 19-23, but sub-
sequently fall definitely
below them. Internal a-
nalysis of the data yields
no satisfactory confirma-
tion of speculative ex-
planations of these M-F
differences.
None of the feeble-
minded S's pass this item,
iTEJi''
227
% PLl
JS
80
Item 105
/•
70
^
''"
>
t
/
60
1
V
/
50
•^
/
A
/
40
^ ,^> -
f
\
.
30
M-
-y
/
7*
n/
V
\
J
20
V
t
/
«-F
V
10
r
k/'
/
-^
/
,•-
-J
7^8 ■ 19 ■ 20 21 22 23 24 US i6 'it 2S 2& 3o
LA (normal by sex)^
'05: Provides for future.
Med. Mean
M:
27.70 ?
F:
24.85 ?
D:
-
Tot.:
25.50
8D
CR
The examiner must be careful not to substitute apologies
for success in scoring this item. The reasons surrounding the
performance may, however, influence the interpretation of the
score assigned. Yet even here sophistication is helpful since
many immediate luxuries may become regarded as necessities,
and denying one's self such present satisfactions in favor of
presumptive later and greater values requires a definitely su-
perior degree of social maturation.
Item 112. (LA 25 +) Purchases for others.
This is a superior form of Item 100 and related items by
extending monetary responsibility from personal discretion to
acting as financial agent for others.
In the performance of this item the S either makes or approves major
purchases beyond his own needs or those of his own household and rela-
tives, and in so doing displays adequate responsibility, choice and financial
judgment.
The item may be considered in some instances as an occupa-
tion item and may be so interpreted, as in the case of buyers and
financial agents. It might in other instances be regarded as a
228
Item Specification
superior adult socialization item if the performance represents
social assistance rather than a frank occupation. However, it
has been placed in the self-direction category because of its
major significance as extending this form of assistance to others
as a comparatively rare degree of general prudence. Purchasing
for others within the ordinary family circle does not warrant
plus scores.
The normative data
show one partial success
for men at LA 21, one
full success at LA 25 and
another at LA 27, and
one partial success for
women at LA 24. The
item cannot be interpre-
ted statistically except as
revealing individual apti-
tude within the superior
adult range.
None of the feeble-
minded S's pass this
item.
% PLl
JS
100
90
Item 112
80
60
50
40
20
10
I'm
— <<
-^
J>
y
A
V^
A
%,
-M
(
SB
f*5
nori
nal
by s<
?*2
4*2
5*2
6^2
i'*i
^^'30'"
Item 112: Purchases for others.
Med. Mean 8D CR
M: ...
F: . - -
D:
Tot.:
SurrhTYiary. In summarizing this category we may add that
a major difficulty was encountered in formulating these items in
that they were designed to allow for wide variation in personal
standards of conduct, social conventions, monetary discretion,
social and economic status, scale of living and other details of
personal-social accountability. Care has been exercised to avoid
virtuous and moralistic concepts of such behavior except as
social competence involves certain relatively universal con-
formity to accepted social standards of living on the one hand
and freedom of individual conduct on the other. The extent to
which the formulations are fruitful may be inferred from the
consistency of the data obtained (1) as to total normative pro-
gressions, (2) as to sex differences and (3) as to normal versus
Self-Dieection , 229
feeble-minded validation. These results are in general accord
with expectation; except for a generally adequate formulation
such consistent evidence could hardly have been obtained. Fur-
ther confirmation is found in the consistent relation of items
in this category to the Scale as a whole.
The normative sex differences on these items are of neg-
ligible amount and low statistical reliability. The highest M-F
CR is 1.13, and the highest mean difference is 1.40 years (one-
eighth of its base), both on Item 83. All other M-F CR's are
below .92, and all other D's are below .91 years.
The items show markedly inferior maturation for feeble-
minded SA groups compared with normative LA intervals.
However, this is not statistically proved because of the limited
number of feeble-minded subjects in the upper range of matura-
tion for these items. The feeble-minded S's attain 100 per cent
success on only one item (Item 60) with a CR of 5.21 and a
mean difference of 2.35 years (nearly half its base) in favor
of the normal subjects.
Our observations oh the feeble-minded outside institutional
residence (estimated generally as 90 per cent of all the feeble-
minded) are somewhat gratuitous as well as, speculative. These
comments are based on impressions gained from extensive
field experience rather than on systematic evidence, except as
reported on page 466.
280
Item Specification
<
I— <
o
«<
:^
IS
o
o
E-
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o
1— <
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73
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s
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12;
73
OS
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09
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I I
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00
eoooiooooeot-oooopco
w50>t-Jeo«o'«ot-^ododaJO
§s$s§s;
SS^^S
lO^OOOIOiCikOljOOlOkO
^
§
oooocoeooiOOt>«Dt-t-
rHrHcioJNi-lTHT-JrHrHr-i
ic5o»NC<i«o«di>odoio©
iHiHrHi-HrHr-tTHIM©)
<3siqt~oOfocOT)«c<9coco
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Socialization 231
Socialization
So you have mastered
mighty things
my son - -
walking - - talking - - thinking
play - - well done.
And today - - great wide world
beckons - - and you go to school.
Have I lost a little boy
have I gained a man?
What is the rule
What is the plan?
I must not question the
mystery of you
I must follow in your high-
way if I can. — Eva Parshalle
Social competence naturally involves social relationships
since the expression of individual adequacy matures within a
social setting. Few if any persons are more than partially or
temporarily independent of their social environment. Conse-
quently the exercise of personal independence and personal re-
sponsibility must always be gauged with reference to the social
group as well as to the age level within which these performan-
ces are displayed. Indeed, the social competence of the individual
from one point of view is indicated by the extent to which he
is accepted among his fellows as equal, inferior or superior to
his age and cultural-economic level.
We have elsewhere observed that in the first decade of life
the individual is dominated by his elders, in the second decade
acquires self -dominance, and in the adult period dominates his
juniors and perhaps his elders or contemporaries. This move-
ment from dependence to independence and then to responsibil-
ity for others is most clearly evident in these social perform-
ances which involve group relationships. In the periods of
childhood and youth, these relationships are most clearly evident
in play activity and cooperative group interests. These emerge
in the adult period as altruistic enterprises which advance the
welfare of associates, family and society at large. Hence the
socialization items of this scale cover the entire range of social
maturation from early infancy to superior adult levels.
232 Item Specification
The term "self-sufficiency" has previously been used rather
loosely as indicative of social competence as herein defined. This
may imply to some readers a divorce of the individual from his
social milieu and fellov^s. On the contrary, such a concept would
not rise above mere adequacy for sustaining existence, whether
within or without the social-cultural-economic setting in which
most human beings grow up and live their later years. Few men
are sufficient to themselves ; normal human living requires col-
laborative association. Hence living merely by and for self alone,
however adequately accomplished, falls outside the bounds of
social competence as here set forth. In the same way our concept
of social adequacy is not limited to mere self -subsistence at a
marginal level, but assumes a spread of performances to include
assistance to others. To be socially adequate may literally mean
just "getting along" or "getting by," but is here construed as
also involving some residue which accrues to the general wel-
fare.
We wish that these intentions might have included the
evaluation of emotional maturity and dynamic attitudes as criti-
cal facets of total personality since these are such obviously
potent factors in overall social maturation. Indeed, we made an
earnest attempt to incorporate these, but without success except
as they are reflected in various ways in all items and categories.
Insofar as these and other aspects of personality influence social
competence they may be assayed by other means, and such re-
sults may be employed in the evaluation of social maturity as
here conceived.
The items of this category are somewhat difficult to formu-
late at the play activity levels because at first thought they seem
irrelevant to the productive expressions of competence that have
been so characteristic of the items previously presented. But the
evolution of play activity does reflect growth in psycho-social
experience which is something more than psychological matura-
tion alone. Our problem is to avoid the explicit genesis of these
psychological phases of development, and instead employ their
functional incorporation in social participation.
Some comment is pertinent here regarding the scoring of
these items in the face of special disabilities, such as blindness,
deafness, crippling, anti-social conduct, mental disorder and
advanced age. Equivalent forms of play may be employed as
alternatively acceptable where self-evident and feasible, but
allowances for specific disabilities should be accounted under
interpretation rather than under generous scoring.
Socialization
233
Among subjects with mental disorders or in their senescent
years there is some regression toward childish play normatively
outgrown at intermediate age levels. The examiner must decide
for himself in such cases whether the absence of play activity
of a given sort represents immaturity or involution. In such
circumstances the attending LA and SA of the S will afford
some clue to scoring. In the case of feeble-minded subjects the
level of activity may not have been exceeded but its type modi-
fied by advancing years, a fact which is pertinent in those sub-
jects whose inactivity is due to lack of energy or initiative
rather than to immaturity or deterioration.
The 17 items in this category cover almost the entire range
of the Scale (from Item 4 to Item 117) . There are no items for
years II, VI, VIII to XII and XV to XX. Whether this dearth
of items between LA's 8-20 years is due to weaknesses of formu-
lation or categorization is a moot point. There is a rather marked
series of socialized play and recreation items (27, 46, 56, 59, 69,
85, 88), another series of advanced social responsibility (103,
104, 109, 110, 115, 117), and a minor series of interpersonal
relations (4, 14, 49). Item 68 is an odd item marking the tran-
sition from animistic to realistic social consciousness.
Item 4. (LA .80) Reaches for familiar persons.
284
Item Specification
In early infancy the adult or elder person assumes respon-
sibility for the care of the infant and ministers to his needs and
desires. A few months after birth the normal infant seeks at-
tention instead of waiting for it. Aside from mere bodily needs
and the satisfaction of immediate physical wants, the infant
soon reveals a desire for social attention on the part of familiar
persons.
At this item level, the S in various ways indicates a desire to be taken
UD or fondled by such familiar persons as the mother, father, nurse or
elder sibling, and in so doing discriminates between familiar persons and
strangers. This is an early form of the identification of the individual with
his social environment and reflects the growing recognition of those per-
sons from whom he may expect immediate assistance or comfort. "Reaches"
here means any form of clear recognition, such as actual reaching, eager
squirming, vocalization or even invitational smiling, as an obvious distinc-
tion between familiar and unfamiliar persons.
The normative data shovir 70
per cent success for both sexes in
the first year (LA 0-1) and 100 per
cent thereafter. The mean total
norm is .30 years.
The feeble-minded S's show de-
layed maturation in SA versus
normative LA groups. The mean
N-FM diflference is .75 years.
%
F-
f
j
L
i
Iten
1 4
0
1
i
i
i .•
LA (normal by sex)«^
. 1 2 3 T
LA (normal tot)
SA ( FMtot )
Item
Med.
Mean
M:
.21
.30
F:
.21
.30
D:
0
: Reaches for familiar persona.
8D OR Med. Mean 8D CR
N : .21 .30
FM: 1.05 1.05 .60
D : -.75
This item as formulated places no emphasis on neutral or
withdrawal attitudes toward familiar or unfamiliar persons.
Such negatively discriminative recognition of strangers, or re-
sistance towards unwelcome approaches by familiar persons,
might well be incorporated as an item (e.g., Resists unwelcome
advances) between this item and Item 41.
Item 14. (LA .70) Demands personal attention.
This is an extension of Item 4 (more insistence) .
Socialization
235
The infant now "demands" attention beyond mere care for his physical
wants. In addition to mere fondling he indicates desires to be transported,
talked to, played with, or otherwise taken account of. In so doing, he par-
ticipates to some degree actively rather than as a mere passive recipient of
attention. The response may be accepted from either familiar or (though
less likely) unfamiliar persons.
The normative distinction be-
tween this item and Item 4 is
evident from the comparative
maturation curves. The mean M-P
difference is .10 years in favor of
the girls. The mean total norm is
.70 years, SD .48.
As for Item 4, the feeble-minded
S's show comparative retardation
in SA versus LA intervals. The
mean N-FM difference is .65 years,
CR 4.14. This difference, as well as
that for Item 4, might be inter-
preted as one early evidence of the
typical lack of initiative so com-
monly evident among feeble-mind-
ed subjects, but such an interpreta-
tion may be specious.
,.
%
E>LL
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
S
F-
7/
/^
f
7
N-
/
t
-M
/ »f-Fft
i
1
' /
/
1
/
/
/
1
1
I
i
f
Iten
14
/
Item 14
/
1
4
0
LA<
I
nori
2
nail
1...
*
) 1 2 3 4
^ (normal tot)
■^
SA ( FMtot )
Med.
Mean
M:
.77
.75
F:
.73
.65
D:
.10
Item 14: Demands personal attention.
8D CR
.55
Med.
Mean
8D
N :
.75
.70
.48
FM:
1.32
1.35
.49
D :
-.65
CB
4.14
While seeking attention from familiar persons the S may
refuse or resist such ministrations from strangers. Negativism
toward strangers (as well as "repudiation" of some familiar
persons) suggests a higher degree of social discrimination and
selective behavior with perhaps more than one definitive stage.
Item 27. (LA 1.50) Plays with other children.
The desire for social association soon shifts from demands
on elders to active relations with other children of similar age.
At first this takes the form of playing in company with others,
although such play may be relatively independent or non-cooper-
ative.
To pass this item the S engages in social-situation play with or among
other children of about his own age and some familiarity, but in so doing
does not interfere obnoxiously with others, or create disturbances, and re-
quires but little oversight from his elders. The periods of play may be
relatively brief and intermittent, but the tendency to get along with others
is well established.
236
Item Specification
The normative maturation in this item develops between LA's 1-2.
mean M-F difference is
.10 years, in favor of the
girls. The mean total
norm is 1.50 years, SD
.47.
The feeble-minded S's
show mild but consistent
retardation in SA versus
normative LA periods.
The mean N-FM differ-
ence is .45 years, CR
2.47. Self-initiated play
on the part of feeble-
minded children is some-
what less spontaneous
and is accompanied by
more inter-personal in-
terferences than among
normal children. Note
also that the mean LA of
the feeble-minded sub-
jects is about fifteen
years in advance of the
normative.
The
1
%
/'
''
/
/
F-
-*1
1 L
1 j
-M
il
If
f/
li
Iten
27
/
0^1
LA (normal by sex)"^
2 3 4
LA (normal tot.)
SA ( FMtot. )
Item 27:
M:
F:
D:
Med.
1.59
1.33
Mean
1.55
1.45
.10
-SD
.52
Plays with
CR
other children.
N
FM
D
Med.
1.45
1.94
Mean
1.50
1.95
-.45
-SD
.47
.64
CR
2.47
Item 46. (LA 3.28) Plays cooperatively at kindergarten level.
Socialization
237
As play interests develop, the social relationships are extended from
independent play in company with others to coordinate play in partici-
pation with others. Such coordinated early group play takes place at a
simple level as represented by kindergarten and circle games, imaginative
group play (such as tea parties, doll play, family projections), or in
general "folk play" in which mutual or reciprocal action is involved. The
S may be leader or follower, but the play is expressive and cooperative
and is more than fitfully pursued.
Normative success oc-
curs between LA's 2-4
yearSk The mean M-F
difference is .25 years
(note interlacing) in fa-
vor of the girls, CR .57.
The mean total norm is
3.28 years, SD .93.
The feeble-minded S's
closely match the norma-
tive. The mean N-FM
difference is .08 years, in
favor of the feeble-mind-
ed subjects, CR .24. Al-
though this group play is
at the kindergarten level,
it should be noted that
the average LA of the
feeble-minded subjects is
in the late adolescent
years.
Item 46: Plays cooperatively at kindergarten level.
eg ■
•
f
J
M-
4
-"■
/
1 ■
1 j
hen
46
1
1
p,
*■!
■j
I
(
jA (norma) by sex)»
PU
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
JS
r^
I
"/
t
J
•/
-N
FM-<
7
1
1
/
,7
,7
L
Jteir, 46
',
/
1
J\
1
0 "
i
i 4 5 a
'...
LA (normal tot.)
SA ( FWtot. )
Med.
Mean
SD
CR
Med.
Mean
8D
M:
3.25
3.40
.68
N :
3.23
3.28
.93
F:
3.17
3.15
1.12
FM:
3.00
3.20
1.15
D:
.25
.57
D :
.08
CR
.24
Item 49. (LA 3.75) "Performs" for others.
As social expression develops, the child engages in simple perform-
ances for the entertainment of others by doing various "stunts" such as
reciting, singing, dramatizing, dancing or gymnastics. This may be done
(1) for the edification of children of his own age, (2) as a form of aggres-
sive self-expression, (3) as a means of self -satisfying expression, or (4)
as an elementary form of social entertainment of elders. The performances
are presumed to be fairly creditable rather than merely "showing off" or
sentimentally "cute." They may be executed individually or with others.
The normative progression is fairly smooth and rapid between LA's
2-5. The mean M-F difference is .10 years in favor of the girls, CR .19. The
mean total norm is 3.75 years, SD 1.12.
The feeble-minded S's closely follow the normative curve at SA versus
LA intervals 2 and 3, with progressive comparative delay thereafter to
10 years. The mean N-FM difference is .70 years in favor of the normal
subjects, CR 1.31.
238
Item Specification
^,
PLUS
1
.'
90
30
»
50
40
30
20
10
r
^,
.-
- »'
f
f
N-*
! ^
F-
u
«-M
/
/-4-™
\j
/
/
f
//
/ '
4
/;
./
'\
tem
49
/
[tem 49
i
7
,/
1
J
0 1
LA(
ncrr
laii
)yss
x)-*
I
" i
J
^ 1
ii i
1...
t
^Z i 4
j 6
'
J 9 10 11...
M:
F:
D:
Med.
3.75
3.90
Item 49: '"Performs" for others.
Mean SD CR Med. Mean
.99 N : 3.86 3.75
1.24 FM; 4,10 4.45
.19 D : -.70
3.80
3.70
.10
SD
1.12
2.05
CR
1.31
Item 56. (LA 5.13) Plays competitive exercise games.
At about the time the
child enters school he
competes at play within
small groups of children
of approximately similar
ages. This takes the form
of exercise games such
as tag, hide-and-seek,
jumping rope, playing
marbles, spinning tops,
hopscotch, statue. These
games involve some ap-
preciation of simple
rules, or forms of play,
and some subservience to
these as facilitating
group cooperation.
Socialization
239
The normative development occurs rapidly between LA's 4-6, with one
partial success at LA 3. The mean M-F sex difference is .15 years in favor
of the boys, CR .48. The mean total norm is 5.13 years, SD .65.
The feeble-minded S's excel the normal slightly at LA's 3 and 4, and
then fall seriously behind them in SA versus normative LA periods. The
mean N-FM difference is 1,07 years in favor of the normal subjects, CR
1.95. The SD is comparatively high for the feeble-minded S's because of
the protracted delay in attaining complete success. This delay is affected by
the LA increases in the later SA groups and the loss of interest in childish
play with advancing years.
"i^
Pii
JS
/■
90
80
70
eo
50
/
/
f
J
1
N-
~*7
f
/
M-
fjl
/
/
-FR
I'-*
-F
/
/
19-
I
^•.
40
30
20
10
,
r
•
1
ij
lUn
iS€
1
[ten
56
fl
J
/
JL
■i
a
,^
y
nori
nail
i (
»
i ' i
\ {
■i
6 !l
i...
LA <
5A<
non
FI
nal
(I to
tot)
> 1
I
r 1
\ {
l ■ 1
0 1
i..
Med.
Mean
SB
M:
5.07
5.05
.61
P:
5.25
5.20
.69
D:
-.15
Item 56: Plays, competitive exercise games.
CR
.48
Med.
Mean
8D
N :
5.14
5.13
.65
FM:
5.50
6.20
2.31
D :
-1.07
CR
1.95
In this as in other play items regard must be had for
regional and "fashionable** (temporal) differences in play inter-
ests. Variations also occor in social-economic-cultural group
settings. It is impracticable to specify such variations; the
definitions and examples herewith are designed to convey a cen-
tral theme for evaluation, the particular modulations of which
must be left to the examiner's judgment according to local and
temporal circumstances.
240 Item Specification
Item 59. (LA 5.63) Plays simple table games.
In this item the
play activity is sim-
plified with reference
to the degree of phys-
ical activity involved
and somewhat more
complicated as to the
game patterns and
rules. It also em_pha-
sizes the increased
need for harmonious
group action.
The normative maturation is smooth and rapid between LA's 4-7. The
mean M-F difference is .15 years in favor of the boys, OR .33. The mean
total norm is 5.63 years, SD .98.
Tfie feeble-minded S's show definite retardation in SA versus LA
periods. The mean N-FM difference is 1.87 years, CR 5.15. This difference
reflects the relative lack of sustained intellectual and social rivalry so
apparent among feeble-minded subjects, rather than loss of interest due
to relatively advanced years.
LA (normal by sex)
LA (normal tot.)
SA ( FM tot ) '
10 11
Item 59: Plays ^mple table games.
Med. Mean 8D CR Med. Mean
M: 5.38 5.55 .98 N : 5.57
F: 5.70 5.70 .96 FM: 7.29
D: -.15 .33 D
5.63
7.50
-1.87
SB
.98
1.25
CR
5.15
Socialization
241
The item requires cooperation with others at table games in taking
turns, appreciation of goals, observance of rules, exercise of judgment, and
friendly rivalry. These nuances are to be maintained without dissension in
such games at tiddle-de-winks, simple card games, dominoes, checkers,
spinning games, and so on. The kinds of games will vary with time and
place; the level is beyond kindergarten amusements.
Item 68. (LA 8.28) Disavows literal Santa Claus.
The child's early concepts of social organization are tinged
with animistic and anthropomorphic ideas as reflected in various
myths and the social preservation of primitive sentiments. In
early infancy the child accepts these phantasies regarding
fairies, the personification of objects, and the spiritism asso-
ciated with certain festivals and holidays. In later childhood the
literal significance of these concepts is rejected, but their senti-
mental or symbolic values may be retained. This release from
mythical to realistic attitudes is sufficiently important in the
social adjustment of the individual to serve as indicating a
definite stage of social sophistication which marks a distinct
turn in the child's social orientation. This item is therefore
included to reveal this emergence from naive, animistic to
materialistic attitudes as having a definite bearing on the
child's social insight.
To pass the item the S rejects his earlier mythical notions and turns
to more objective interpretations of experience. "Santa Claus" here is em-
ployed as a generic term for related personifications such as fairies, elves,
Easter Rabbit, goblins, gremlins, "bogyman" and other demi-deistic patrons
and devils.
1
1
\% i
1
1
i '
/ !
1
[tern 68
1 '
!
/
1
t
~T]\ r
M-
4\ .
h :
,•/
^.^
-F
/I
rJ
J
/
/
"«■
1 i
^
^ 1
)
>
I
■■ i
n
1 li...
LA (normal by sex)^
LA (normal totj .
SA( FMtot )"
10 11 12...
M:
F:
D:
Med.
8.21
9.83
Item 68: Disavows literal Santa Claus.
Mean 8D CB Med. Mean
7.80
8.75
-.95
1.44
2.00
1.16
N :
FM:
D :
8.39
7.08
8.28
7.25
1.03
8D
1.81
1.21
CB
2.07
242 Item Specification
The normative maturation for this item occurs between LA's 5-10.
There is an interesting discrepancy for girls at LA 9. The mean M-F dif-
ference is .95 years in favor of the boys, CR 1.16. The mean total norm is
8.28 years, SD 1.81.
The feeble-minded S's pass the item earlier than the normative S's
in SA versus LA intervals. The mean N-FM difference is 1.03 years, CR
2,07. This suggests that the item is materially influenced by LA.
This item is subject to some misunderstanding. The exam-
iner is likely to confine the scoring to Santa Claus alone as the
Christmas patron-spirit rather than generically to other anthro-
pomorphic and animistic equivalents. Some S's do not for
various reasons "accept" the Santa Claus myth in spite of its
universality (by whatever name may be regionally conventional).
There are also marked individual and family differences regard-
ing the desirability of fostering or destroying this "supersti-
tion." And where shall the lines be drawn between sentimental
myth, superstitition and whimsical "rapping on wood," spiritual
conceptions and religious beliefs of many kinds? One may also
question the value of this item as to its relevance for measuring
social competence as herein conceived.
We reply that the belief in Santa Claus or equivalent mythi-
cal spirits of good and evil (as well as in their abodes) is so
widespread in our culture as to constitute environmental uni-
versality of experience. The transition from ingenuous literal
credence in such "unverified phenomena" (of which Santa Claus
is ordinarily the last to be given up) to sentimental or symbolic
sophistication constitutes an early form of ideational-emotional
conversion which has definite social import and is not always
without attendant attitudinal trauma. The later religious con-
versions so typical of adolescent reorientation of faith in theistic
convictions and the supernatural are closely similar social ex-
periences which have even graver bearing on social attitudes
and consequently on social values. The variety of that experi-
ence, however, and the manifold forms of religious expression
encountered among adults, balked our several attempts t©
formulate its continuing orderly maturation and practical per-
tinence. The time of onset, or first acceptance, of such
"convictions" might well enough be conceived as substitute
items.
Socialization
243
Item 69. (LA 8.28) Participates in pre-adolescent play.
The play activities
of growing children
show such progres-
sive modification as
to reveal definite
stages of social mat-
uration. This is re-
flected in the accept-
ance or rejection of
the individual in
groups of his own age
level of development.
While some older
children may partici-
pate in play activities
below their years,
and some younger
children may be tol-
erated in the play activities of their more grown-up fellows, play
activities do gradually lead to a fusion of age-group interests
which are rather clearly diff erentiable.
In the period of infancy and early childhood these activities
are largely bisexual, with boys and girls collaborating on equal
terms. In the pre-adolescent period definite sexual differentiation
evolves. This is somewhat abated in later adolescence as the
sexes join in heterosexual or competitive, folk, group and sports
activities.
Boys here engage in cooperative team play not requiring very highly
coordinated skills or very complex rules, yet which reveal a higher degree
of organization than the activities discussed in previous items. Or the forms
of play pursued at earlier ages under simple rules become more complex
although still rather loosely organized, such as (a) baseball, football,
basketball, hockey and the like, of the "sand-lot" variety; (b) range games
such as follow-the-leader, fox and geese; (c) more individual forms of
recreation such as hiking, bicycling, swimming, skating, fishing or hunt-
ing which may be pursued alone or in the company of a few others of the
same age or older.
Girls, for satisfactory scoring on this item, engage in dramatic play
symbolizing domestic or social situations, such as playing house, school or
store (the reproduction of adult activities at a juvenile level). They may,
of course, also engage in team play similar to that of boys, but usually in
somewhat less vigorous or modified form. They may also pursue individual
and small-group recreations not requiring team organization. And some
girls may still be accepted among boys as "good sports" on equivalent
terms.
244
Item Specification
The examiner will recognize that complete sex differentation in
play has not yet taken place at this level and that while there is some dif-
ferentiation in groups, this does not necessarily apply to individuals, as in
the case of "torn -boy" girls or of "sissy" boys.
This is therefore one of the few items which may require some distinc-
tion as to sex in scoring the type of activity although there is little need
for discrimination as to its level. The item is considered passed if the S
typically seeks recreation in modes equivalent to those noted in the preced-
ing paragraphs. It is permissible to score boys on the activities ordinarily
preferred by girls, and vice versa.
The principal normative maturation is evident between LA's 7-10, with
single successes at LA's 5 and 6, and a single failure at LA 11. The mean
M-F difference is .45 years in favor of the boys, CR .63. The mean total
norm is 8.28 years, SD 1.55.
The feeble-minded validation curve closely parallels the normative
progression except for a lapse at SA 9. The curve falls slightly short of
full success at SA 11-12. If assumed as complete thereafter (as is war-
ranted by the fragmentary data beyond SA 11-12), the mean SA is 8.43
years, SD 1.68. The mean N-FM difference is then .15 years in favor of the
normal subjects, CR .29.
1
%
r
X
•
IteiT
69
/
^9^
/
V
1
A
,
M^
-w
/
/ /■
-F
1
//
J
^(n
„-4
<l
1
LA(
non
nal
jy sc
1 .
>
^ 1
0 1
1 1
2 1
i...
0 <r4 _
LA (normal lot.)
SA( FMtot )
Item 69
Med. Mean
M-:
7.83 8.05
F:
8.30 8.50
D:
-.45
Participates in pre-adolescent play.
SD CR Med. Mean SD CR
1.40 N : 8.05 8.28 1.55
1.66 FM: 8.78? 8.43* 1.68*
.63 D : -.15 .29
*10O% assumed at SA 12-13
Some difficulty is encountered in scoring this item with
feeble-minded and (other) adult subjects because with advanced
years the item may be (perhaps should be) outgrown, restricted
or superseded. Such scoring is provided for under the general
rules for scoring (Chap. 7), which should be resorted to for
overall considerations on all items. Relatively low energy
Socialization
245
expenditure or lack of spontaneous initiative on the part of the
S should not be too lightly ignored if present as a limiting
factor. Judgment is also required as to substitute equivalent
forms of expression which are too variable for exposition here.
Item 85. (LA 12.30) Plays difficult games.
This item combines ex-
tensions of Items 59 and
69. Here "games" is used
as a generic term for
table-games, team sports,
inter-personal and small-
group competitive sports,
and recreations involving
relatively high degrees
of complexity of rules,
skills and scoring. These
include: Hoyle card
games; Mah Jong equiv-
alents ; organized base-
ball, basketball, football,
hockey; tennis, golf,
archery, competitive or
highly skilled swimming,
skating, fencing, boxing,
wrestling, gymnastics;
field and track sports;
chess, billiards, pool; and
so on. These games may
be played with or with-
out sex differentiation,
may be indoor or outdoor, may be pursued singly, in pairs, in small groups,
or in teams. In any case they require "strategy," skill, conformity to rules,
and ability to keep score in varying degrees.
There is considerable variety as to these requirements but the item is
to be scored plus when the activity includes a degree and kind of per-
formance typically and consistently expressed as beyond the juvenile level
but below semi-professional attainment. The item differs in social content
from Item 88 and in social intent from Item 107.
The normative progression is gradual and somewhat irregular between
LA's 8-15, with subsequent lag (individual failures). There is a periodic
sex difference at LA's 11-13 in favor of the boys. The nature of the mat-
uration curve suggests individual differences which are not wholly offset
by rapidity of genetic maturation. The mean M-F difference is 1.20 years
in favor of the boys, CR .92. The mean total norm is 12.30 years, SD 2.84,
The feeble-minded S's follow the normative maturation curve with mild
retardation in SA versus normative LA groups to SA 11-12. A satisfactory
central tendency score cannot be computed. The fragmentary data beyond
SA 11-12 show 33 per cent of passes at SA 12 (N = 15), 57 per cent at SA
13 (N=:7), 25 per cent at SA 14 (N=6), and 100 per cent at SA's 15 and
16 (N=4 and 5 respectively).
246
Item Specification
ii i IB ll U U M li )i 1? it IS 28 21
HA UMrant by sex>i»
LA (normol tot.)
SA ( rM tot. > **
Item 85: Plays difficult games.
Med. Mean SD CR Med. Mean
M: 11^ 11.70 2.49 N : 11.50 12.30
F: 13.17 12.90 3.03 FM:
D: -1.20 .92 D :
SD
2.84
CR
Those who are not well acquainted with the feeble-minded
may be surprised to learn (partly because the caption title is
misleading) that any mental defectives succeed on this item.
Such success usually reflects individual aptitude combined with
favorable opportunity for expression. Morale in team work may
be unstable, and sustained persistence may be intermittent. But
the high-grade feeble-minded do engage in sports, table games,
team gymnastics and individual or small-group recreational
skills. The Training School baseball team, for example, has sev-
eral times won the cup of the local inter-church and YMCA-
sponsored leagues. Football has been less successful. Swimming,
skating, tennis, track sports, and so on have their individual
"stars" even though of dubious magnitude. Lesser degrees of
success are apparent at the level of Item 69.
Item 88. (LA 14.10) Engages in adolescent group activities.
Item 85 deals with games, sports and recreation in more
or less competitive forms of social relations. Another and some-
what higher form of collaboration is found in those group activ-
ities in which the emphasis is on social communion rather than
rivalry. This both overlaps and expands the content of Items
69 and 85 by "playing up" the internal cooperation rather than
the external emulation in activities where friendly rivalry is
not wholly absent.
To satisfy this item the S is an active member of a cooperative group,
athletic team, social club, dramatic, musical, literary or similar organiza-
tion. The inter-social aspect of such group participation is considered more
important than the activity in which the group engages, whether card cinb,
sewing circle, debating team, outing group, church league, or whatever. In
Socialization
247
such connections the S commonly plans or participates in friendly sports,
dances, parties, trips and other enterprises as one of a social quorum of
similar age and interests — a self-determined group without adult leader-
ship in which the S is accepted on equal terms with his fellows. The size
of the group is not so important as its social coherence and mutual give and
take. The S is to be more than merely tolerated in such groups. The item is
in effect a junior level of Item 104. The kind of enterprise is less important
than its cooperative nature as intermediate between juvenile and adult
interests.
Normative success emerges gradually but somewhat irregularly be-
tween LA's 10-17, with periodic sex difference at LA's 12, 13 and 15. The
mean M-F difference is 1.40 years, in favor of the boys, CR 1.26. The mean
total norm is 14.10 years, SD 2.44.
The performance of the feeble-minded subjects coincides with that of
the normal subjects up to SA 11-12. A comparative central tendency can-
not be computed. The fragmentary data beyond SA 11-12 show 37 per cent
at SA 12 (N=15), 43 per cent at SA 13 (N=7), 50 per cent at SA 14
(N=6), 50 per cent at SA 15 (N=4), and 100 per cent at SA 16 (N=5).
La (norma! by S3x)s*^ tA (riormoi tof.)
SA ( FM »of. ) ^
Item 88: Engages in adolescent group activities.
Med. Mean 8D CR
M: 13.87 ? 13.40 2.44 N
F: 15.00? 14.80 2.25 FM
D: -1.40 1.26 D
Med. Mean 8D CR
14.63 14.10 2.44
Item 103. (LA 21-22) Assumes responsibilities beyond own
needs.
This is logically an extension of Item 101 of the self-
direction category, and reports of its performance might well
enough be obtained in that connection. The item is placed
in the socialization category because of its broad social bearing.
248
Item Specification
The normative performance rises rapidly from LA 17 to LA 20 but
then "tails off" somewhat slowly and irregularly. Maturation in the later
years is apparently overlaid with individual differences, especially
among the boys between
LA's 19 and 25 years.
Although the graph
reaches 100 per cent of
passes at LA 26 it is
slightly unstable there-
after. If the individual
failures (one for men and
1.5 for women) beyond
LA 26 are ignored, the
mean total norm is 21.83
years, the mean versus
median difference 2.16
years (in favor of the
median), and the mean
M-F difference 1.17 years
(in favor of the women).
None of the feeble-minded S's pass this item.
% PLl
JS
'A
\/
^1-
^
Iten
103
/»'
'h
"<
f
70
f
1 ^
v/
f\
/\
'
/
V
50
1
V.
<
^.^
J
40
M-
-w
1
30
/
!■*
-F
20
/
10
f
(^
?
LA(
6 1
norr
L.\
8 1
jy se
S» 2
0 2
1 2
i 2
i 2
i 2
5 2
S 2
7 2.
i 2.
) 3
0
Item 103: Assumes responsihilities beyond own needs.
Med. Mean
M:
20.85 ?
F:
20.00
D:
.
Tot.:
19.67
8D
CR
In this item, the S contributes eflfectively to the care and support of
others through personal or financial assistance, or shares in these respon-
sibilities beyond the point of merely managing his own aCFairs to a self-
sufticient degree. These "others" may be relatives, dependents, friends or
protegees; the activities may include family responsibilities or inter-per-
Socialization 249
sonal and "good neighbor" helpfulness of practical moment; and the per-
formances may represent financial or personal aid. This item represents the
mature onset of that group of adult items where family responsibilities
are successfully discharged or altruistic assistance is offered beyond merely
juvenile obligations and sentiments. The performances are to be habitually
characteristic of the S rather than temporarily casual or intermittent. The
beneficiaries may vary in kind or number, and the material assistance may
fluctuate from great to small, but the S after satisfying his own needs gives
material aid and comfort to others.
Performance on this item is influenced by personality and
social circumstances as well as by social maturation. Introver-
sion, inculcated sense of extra-personal obligation, early mar-
riage, fortuitous situations, social-economic circumstances and
the greater tendency among women to assume responsibilities
for others all combine to mingle individual differences with
maturational tendencies. In earlier items the influence of mat-
uration obscures such fortuitous individual differences, but as
the adult limits of maturation are approached the uniqueness of
performance in relation to other variables becomes more appar-
ent.
The earlier items were formulated with these considerations
realistically in mind, with such varying degrees of success as the
data demonstrate. Other items which proved less successful were
rejected. But between LA's 20-25 we must reckon with personal
differences rather than similarities in mature competence. Here
the items tend to become alternative rather than sequential, as
is evident from the fact that the total scores from LA's 20-25
and thereafter are "smoother" than are the item scores in the
same range (cf. p. 177).
Item 104. (LA 25 + ) Contributes to social welfare.
This is an extension of Item 103 involving active participation in so-
cially helpful altruistic ways, such as collaborating as an active worker in,
or giving financial support to, community and public welfare enterprises.
This is revealed in personal activities outside the ordinary demands of one's
major occupation and by active membership in semi-professional, or semi-
official social welfare groups, such as parent-teacher associations, church
guilds, health promotion groups, occupational organizations, charitable
activities, civic and cultural movements, and the like.
The progression for the normative women proceeds smoothly though
slowly from LA 18 to LA 25; thereafter the maturation curve is irregular,
reaching its highest point at LA 29 with 80 per cent success. Median per-
formance is reached at LA 23.17 years. The mean of successes for LA 25
years and beyond is at 66 per cent.
250
Item Specification
The normative men show marked irregularity of maturation and at
lower levels than the women. An "awkward" median is calculated at
27.38' years. The mean of successes for LA 25 years and beyond is at
56 per cent.
The total normative
maturation is slow and
irregular with awkward
median success at ap-
proximately 25 years.
The mean of successes
after LA 25 years is at
61 per cent.
None of the feeble-
minded S's pass this
item.
Item 104:
M:
F:
D:
Tot.:
% PU
'S
30
sn
Uen
1)1
,A
•
/
70
.-
-»/
\^
/
<
/
\
1
40
F-
/
3V
A
/
\l
30
i'
/
V /
e-
M
20
">k-^
A
V
10
y
^'
^
[
({-
-/
V
y
LA(
7 1
r.orr
C\
S» ail jU 2
2 23 24 2
5 1
5 2
' 2
i i.
) 30
Contributes to social welfare.
Med. Mean 8D CR
27.38 ? - -
23.17
25.03 ? - -
The activities encompassed in this item should be such as to
give reasonable promise of improving social welfare whether or
not at the time such work might seem somewhat misguided, or
not in accord with social tradition. Here the examiner must be
careful to avoid reflecting his personal prejudices for or against
the S, or in respect to the type of work done, or its final social
value. The merit of such work must be judged in terms of ear-
nest purpose, since promotion of social welfare proceeds experi-
mentally or somewhat adventitiously, and some well-intended
movements may prove socially harmful. Merely bizarre, "crack-
pot," or sentimental "uplift" activities, and those pursued for
purposes of personal prestige or popular approval may well be
viewed with some reservations. The examiner must be both
generous and cautious in evaluating such activities. He may
properly resort to the immediate public favor with which they
are viewed, even though such social endorsement may be ill-
considered. Presumably the S will engage in a sufficient number
and variety of such activities over a considerable period of time
to render suitable scoring more evident than might at first be
supposed possible.
Many occupations aim to improve social welfare. These in-
clude such callings as the ministry, teaching, the arts, science
Socialization
251
and invention, manufacture and distribution, social welfare,
politics, medicine and so on through a long list. The criterion
here might well be whether the individual's purpose in pursuing
such callings is altruistic or selfish. A more strictly objective
criterion, however, is that of outcome rather than motive. It
therefore seems wiser not to credit this item in terms of the ordi-
nary consequences of those occupational callings which would
automatically include its caption title (since this would auto-
matically give double credit to many S's on Item 106), but to
require performances outside such callings or beyond their ordi-
nary expectation. Nor need the examiner concern himself too
seriously with the problems of immediate motive or remote out-
come. He will do better to evaluate the performances at issue in
their more immediate aspects.
Item 109. (LA 25+)' Inspires confidence.
This enlarges Item 1(^3 111 a somewhat different direction and repre-
sents social maturity from the standpoint of the substantial comfort and
sound counsel which is sought from the S by others in tim^es of stress_or
need. In satisfying this item the S is found to be helpful in emergencies,
shews acknowledged or effective leadership, is generally rated as a person
of sound judgment, is consulted and relied upon in times of serious trouble,
or meritoriously fills positions requiring trust and confidence.
The normative per-
formance reveals a defi-
nite maturational trend
for women between LA's
22-30. Among the male
subjects this trend is less
obvious (more marked in-
dividual differences) and
at a lower level. Median
success is approximated
for both sexes at LA 30.
The mean of successes
for LA's 25-30 is at 38
per cent for the women,
25 per cent for the men,
and 32 per cent for the
total.
None of the feeble-
minded S's pass this item.
PLl
s
IWi
tem
109
^
Uii
tit»
M«!
7
,%"
A
-.'
f
f\
— 1
/
1
r
\
/
,A.
A
z
-/
^
^^
J
-M
-""
<4
yl
fr\
%..
•■^
'
<
11
norn
nal 1
»yse
i)-l
¥2
*
i 2
4 i
& i
i i
7 2
S i
d i
0 ■
Item 109: Inspires confidence.
Med. Mean 8D CR
M: -
F: - - -
D:
Tot.: - - -
252
Item Specification
It might be questioned whether the intent of this item was
carefully retained in gathering the normative data. From a
jyriori reasoning the item should reveal comparatively rare suc-
cess as a special (personality?) attainment at the adult level of
maturity. However, the item is unavoidably related to occupa-
tional pursuits and its performance reveals many specific forms
in relation thereto. Hence the generalized intent of this item is
overshadowed in fact by the manifold forms of its expression.
Even so, one may well question whether one-third of all subjects
of LA 25 and over satisfy the requirements as formulated.
As for Item 104, many occupational pursuits automatically
may be assumed as including success on this item. But such suc-
cess should be specifically assured rather than assumed. It is
particularly necessary to insure that a person who fills a position
which presumes trust and good judgment does in fact command
(even if he may not merit) the confidence which that position
implies.
Item 110. (LA 25+) Promotes civic progress.
This extends Item 104 to superior aspects of social leader-
ship.
The performances in-
clude active enterprise in
advancing civic welfare
beyond the ordinary lim-
its of good citizenship
and immediate occupa-
tion. Evidence of this
may be found in vigorous
membership in prominent
professional, commercial,
occupational, fraternal,
religious, civic, political
and other organizations
for improving public af-
fairs.
The diversity of civic
activities prevents their
inclusive enumeration.
The leadership involved
is presumed to represent
genuine social service
even though those partici-
pating may receive per-
sonal advantages there-
from in fame, fortune or
other satisfactions.
In this and in similar items the point of view adopted is
realistic rather than morally virtuous. It is tempting to ex-
Socialization
253
patiate on the essentially egocentric nature of all human
enterprise, whether apparently to the advantage of the person
represented, or whether pursued impersonally or even to his
private disadvantage. Social progress rises above both pro-
tagonists and antagonists — some saints misguidedly retard
progress while some nether souls unwittingly advance it. Here
again the examiner is required to exercise some discretion as to
the manner in which as well as the level at which these activi-
ties are pursued. Caution is also necessary in passing judgment
on the social merits of the performances. Thus, many well-
supported programs for civic betterment may reflect interests
which however beneficently conceived may really work toward
civic deterioration. Again the examiner must be careful to avoid
personal prejudice respecting such movements as they may
agree with or conflict with his own social preconceptions.
100
90
80
70
As in Item 100, the intent of this item seems to have been rather loose-
ly construed in the normative scoring. The normative maturation curve for
women shows a rise and fall between LA's 23-30 +, with a peak of_ 35
per cent at LA 25 and a mean success of 18 per cent for the total period.
The curve for men resem-
bles the curve for women
but with delayed onset;
it reaches a peak of 25
per cent at LA 27 but
thereafter falls to zero
per cent with mean suc-
cess of 7 per cent for the
total period. The total
curve (both sexes) shows
a mean success of 12 per
cent for LA's 22-30+.
Hence the data suggest
a spread of individual
differences at a superior
adult level of maturity
rather than a consistent
maturational trend. The
influence of age seems
rather ambiguous.
None of the feeble-
minded S's pass this
item.
60
50
40
30
20
10
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Item 110: Promotes civic progress.
Med. Mean SB CB
M: - . _
F: - - -
D: - -
Tot:
254 Item Specification
The sex difference on this and related items may not be so
spurious as at first appears. While the normative curves
"standardize" (as scored) at higher than anticipated per cents
of passes, the sex difference may reveal a relative precocity of
social participation which can plausibly be supported by other
evidence. Women tend to be socially aggressive at earlier ages
than men, who take up such concerns only after having laid an
assured foundation of self-sufficiency.
Item 115. (LA 25+) Shares community responsibility.
This is a higliei level of Item 109. Its performance is defined as par-
ticipation in the general management or control of large financial respon-
sibilities, or extensive employment, or major leadership in such fields of
social welfare as science, commerce, the arts and professions, government,
and so on. This may be witnessed by holding major positions of public trust
or by other civic and philanthropic leadership where effective devotion to
human progress is at a premium. The item may be considered occupation-
ally as well as extra-occupationally.
None of the normative S's pass this item. This means that the norma-
tive sample was not sufficiently extended to encounter even a single in-
stance of this advanced performance. In a large random sample this item
probably would not be passed by more than one person in several hundred
adults. And since life age is probably a relevant factor, successful per-
formance on this item would seldom be found below LA 30+ years. The
comment on Items 104, 109 and 110 pertains also to this item at higher
levels of distinction. An instance of individual success is found in
Chapter 8, Illustrative Examinations p. 308, and of near success on p. 332.
None of the feeble-minded S's pass this item.
The criterion of habitual performance may be relaxed al-
though not ignored on this item. Successful performance is
almost inevitably transient between the period of prime adult-
hood and senescent decline. Within this age range the S may
pass the item over a short period of time, and may do so for
numerous or varied performances of high merit or for occasional
performances of very high merit. Still others may succeed whose
glory may only be thrust upon them by circumstances rather
than merit. Not all of us are rewarded according to effort or
desert; the criterion is again realistic rather than academic.
Socialization
255
Item 117. (LA 25+) Advances general welfare.
This is a superior aS'
pect of the preceding
items in this category
from Item 103 forward.
It comprehends the S's
having attained wide rec-
ognition for promoting
human progress in im-
portant directions. This
may be done through
very large scale respon-
sibility in the manage-
ment of public affairs or
through the impetus
given to movements of
fundamental social value.
This maybe accomplished
in some instances
through occupational ac-
tivities as a superior
aspect of Items 114 and
116. Thus the S may have
promoted major scientific
discoveries or inventions,
created industrial enter-
prises, accomplished important public welfare legislation, exercised out-
standing leadership in religious, cultural, patriotic and similar fields, or
contributed heavily to philanthropic enterprises. While this may be done
somewhat humbly, or the recognition for such efforts may be obscure or
delayed, and it must be conceded that some individuals attain to positions
of public trust and the management of large affairs somewhat adventi-
tiously, in general such positions must be more or less earned or at least
held by merit.
None of the normative S's pass this item. Comment on the perform-
ances involved is a fortiori similar to that for Item 115.
None of the feeble-minded S's pass this item.
^-N^^X^
Summary. In review, the items of this category fall princi-
pally into two major divisions, (a) those pre-adult performances
which principally reflect social participation through play and
recreation which may be taken at successive life-age stages as
measures of social maturation, and (b) those in the adult period
which reflect contributions to general welfare.
In considering the recreational group the examiner will
meet with some difficulty from the point of view of individual
differences and the influence of circumstances of time and place
and stimulation. As already noted, these activities vary with
social and economic environment, with sex, local and temporal
convention, personal inclination, and so on. Nevertheless the
256 Item Specification
data reveal that in spite of such variables the items do "stand-
ardize" rather well, and are reasonably well validated, at least
for these population samples.
The underlying influences must of course be taken into
account for purposes of interpretation, but should not be given
undue weight for factual scoring. Thus the naive versus the
sophisticated type of person, the inactive versus the active, the
introvert versus the extrovert, will be fairly evident, but these
differences will appear as qualities observable at all levels of
maturation rather than as basic determiners of those levels. The
problem of item formulation has been one of expressing the
levels at which these qualities of performance least obscure the
degree of performance. In elaborating the limited scope of these
definitions the examiner will be materially assisted by familiar-
ity with scales of developmental interest such as those prepared
by Furf ey and by Rogers. Further aid will be derived from con-
sulting various personality schedules with which the profes-
sional student will be familiar.
A more serious difficulty is that of evaluating the influence
of life age on performances which are so dependent on age that
they may be outgrown with advancing years. Such items are
somewhat dubious measures of social competence even though
they may succeed in revealing social maturation. The general
and somewhat arbitrary rule here is to score as plus those items
which are normally outgrown with advancing age provided the
higher items in the same sequence are scored plus (see Chapter
7). Strictly speaking, the recreational items are not true meas-
ures of social competence except as social effectiveness depends
upon social acceptance as one form of social participation in a
gregarious society.
The adult items in this category may be viewed as exten-
sions of the self-direction items, but with a beyond-self orienta-
tion. It is assumed that the performances are sustained for a
fairly definite period of years, that they reflect basic social
competence rather than opportunistic capitalization of circum-
stances, and that (as the items increase in difficulty) they are
extended in scope from the family to the neighborhood, the com-
munity, the country, the state, the nation, and even among
nations.
The student will readily recognize some of the essential
difficulties encountered in the formulation of these adult social-
ization items from the point of view of social philosophy. We
have been at some pains to avoid the direct expression of moral
and ethical virtues. But these have been by no means ignored.
Socialization 257
since such values are assumed to be somewhat inherent in each
of these performances. What is of particular difficulty in these
items is to consider them in terms of acknowledged values. Yet
it is obvious that in the beginning most movements for improv-
ing social welfare are viewed conservatively if not with
suspicion, and on the other hand, many such movements are
merely smug or self-interested expressions of popularly ap-
proved benevolence. In the problems of paternalistic or
authoritarian versus democratic conduct of social affairs it
is not for us to pass judgment, but the formulation of these
social patterns must provide ample leeway for individual ex-
pression in motivation.
A further difficulty arises from the fact that the superior
adult items represent the extreme upper limits of social matu-
rity as we have been able to conceive them. They cannot be
standardized as average performances because comparatively
few S's attain such performances. Consequently, the calibration
of such items is limited by the impracticability of obtaining
extensive data, since by definition these items will be performed
by only the exceptional person. Some clue to this is found in the
total-score standardization norms, which reveal the average
adult score at a total of 105 items. Consequently, some of the
final twelve items for the Scale as a whole will be failed by the
average adult and only the exceptionally superior person will
pass more than a few of these highest items. Indeed, the 99-
percentile score for our experimental sample is only 110 points
for LA 25+, leaving 7 additional points for the exceptional
individuals in larger samples. However, in formulating these
superior items, we have been guided by the achievements of
particular individuals of acknowledged social leadership not
included in the statistical sample (Chapter 8, Cases II and IV).
In doing so we have employed observations as to the apparent
basis for such leadership in a number of outstanding indi-
viduals, both as public figures and those of lesser notoriety
whose attainments have had perhaps deeper if not wider
acclaim.
The normative sex differences in this category are small in
size and of low statistical reliability. The highest CR is 1.26
(Item 88) with a mean M-F difference of 1.40 years (one-tenth
its base) in favor of the boys. In the superior adult items statis-
tical comparisons are not feasible because of incomplete norma-
tive curves, but the women show some tendency toward earlier
success on these items as scored.
258
Item Specification
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Summary 259
The feeble-minded comparisons show three items (Items
14, 27 and 59) with statistically significant CR's (4.14, 2.47 and
5.15 respectively) and with amounts of difference fairly high in
proportion to their bases, though small in amount. All of these
are in favor of the normal subjects. Item 68 has a CR of 2.07,
and a mean N-FM difference one-seventh of its base, in favor of
the feeble-minded subjects.
GENERAL SUMMARY OF ITEM SPECIFICATION
In closing this detailed discussion of the items of the Scale,
it is advisable to recapitulate some of the general principles on
which the presentation has been based.
The student who wishes to use the Scale with only casual
effort may be disappointed that so few concrete illustrations
have been offered. To him the discussion may seem too
generalized if not actually vague. We confess at once that the
introduction of specific examples would be a serious labor. We
have elsewhere expressed the opinion that such details are
both impracticable and inadvisable.
The items have been formulated so as to provide for a wide
variety of activities and so as to allow for unavoidable varia-
tions in time, place and circumstance. Consequently, any attempt
to provide more detailed exposition would involve tedious multi-
plication of specific circumstances; far from satisfying the
examiner this might serve only to confuse him. Adequate ex-
emplification would also tend to circumscribe the definitions,
since many students would be inclined to interpret the items in
such specificity rather than in terms of central principles. To
safeguard the basic definitions, the equivalents would therefore
need to be sufficiently numerous to provide for the major con-
tingencies that are most likely to be encountered, and this in
itself would not satisfy the examiner because v/here he will
most need help is in the scoring of isolated examples of the prin-
ciples involved. Moreover, specific instances would be difficult
to formulate because we are dealing with such a complex and
synthetic relation of abilities, and such a wide variety and range
of subjects. Instead we have prepared (Chapter 8) overall
orientation in a number of illustrative case studies displaying
the procedure as a whole.
260 Item Specification
We have attempted to assist the examiner in interpreting
the items as to the specific performances likely to be encountered
by indicating repeatedly the essential issues involved. Indeed, we
fear the student may be somewhat harassed by the repetition
of these suggestions not only in the general statement of
technique, but also in the general comment introducing and
summarizing each category, and by more specific comment
accompanying each item. This repetition is designed to remind
the examiner at various points of the need for thematic
orientation.
We have suggested for example, that the items are not con-
cerned primarily with psychological ontogenesis, but rather with
the capitalization of all personal aptitudes for socially signifi-
cant performances. We specifically disclaim any attempt to
reveal the psychological evolution of the individual at any stage
or for any process or with any continuity. Where we have com-
m^ented upon the psychological features of the items this has
been done only to assist in the interpretation of the items in
social situations. Hence we have not attempted to present a
scheme of mental development (although the item data do afford
a substantial body of knowledge for genetic psychology) , but on
the contrary have avoided this as far as is consistent with the
clear presentation of items in terms of their social relevance.
Neither have we attempted to evaluate in any specific
manner the complex of abilities present in given performances,
nor even to indicate in any major way the relative importance
of these elements in social adaptation. Since it may be assumed
that this scale will be most commonly employed by examiners
with psychological orientation (whether or not they may be
professional psychologists), this caution can hardly be repeated
too often, namely, that our concept of social maturation is based
on evidence of personal independence and personal responsibil-
ity and on the resulting effect of these as promoting the social
competence of the individual in miscellaneous directions and
from the standpoint of maturation. The examiner will, of course,
always be interested to assay the conditions surrounding the per-
formance, and this interpretation of scores as contrasted with
the actual scoring itself becomes his clinical responsibility.
We have at various points suggested that the professional
examiner must be widely informed with respect to the perform-
ances which constitute the Scale. He is therefore expected to be
familiar with the psychological principles and facts of human
development and also with the special fields of behavior in which
these aptitudes are reflected. In evaluating the social perform-
Summary 261
ance of infants and children he must be discerning in regard to
patterns of domestic life, and well oriented in child training,
parent education, and child conduct, with due regard for the
cultural evolution of children and youth at successive ages. In
scoring the communication items he must be familiar with the
subject-matter and practices of scholastic education and the
social capitalization of educational attainments. Here the exam-
iner will note that education usually progresses appreciably
beyond the social uses to which such achievement is put, and then
often only fortuitously. Indeed, a major problem of public educa-
tion is to teach not only tool and content mastery but also their
uses, and to develop not only personal initiative but also to en-
courage the habitual employment of such resourcefulness in
everyday situations. Similarly the examiner must be vddely in-
formed as to the conditions of employment and the principles
and facts of industrial psychology, occupational practice and
vocational guidance.
In view of these considerations, it will readily be appreci-
ated that although the Scale may be used crudely by a layman,
and even under these conditions suprisingly useful results will
often be obtained, the scientific and professional use of the
Scale as an instrument of some precision requires insight,
resourcefulness and a wide range of professionally organized
information in addition to orientation in the technique of
clinical interview and knowledge of individual differences.
A further caution may be offered regarding the formula-
tion of items in relation to their definition. Usually the definition
of the item includes a wider scope of performance than is epit-
omized in the item caption. These captions should not therefore
be taken too literally, but should be considered as a brief con-
ventional way of presenting the main requirement of the item.
This abbreviation of item captions is for convenience of treat-
ment and provides a succinctness of expression which has cer-
tain advantages for easy reference.
It is particularly important to caution the examiner against
making too generous allowance for the limiting circumstances
under which an item may be performed. The items have been
defined and standardized so as to meet the requirements of the
ordinary middleclass U. S. American environment. Some clue
to the scoring of each item is found in its age value as derived
from the standardization sample which has provided the prelim-
inary calibration of the Scale. This sample has been described
and its representativeness can be judged in terms of this descrip-
tion. Whether it is actually representative or adequate is not at
262 Item Specification
the moment a critical issue. Some standard must be adopted as
a point of reference, and for this purpose all that is necessary is
that the population employed be adequately defined. To explore
a larger universe for a more representative standardization is
certainly to be desired.
These difficulties obtain for rural as contrasted with urban
areas, for variations in social milieu and geographical locus, for
differences in color, or nationality origins, for social-economic
class within a given community, and so on. The Scale as here re-
ported gives one standard of social maturation. The universality
of this standard can be appraised, or the standards modified,
only by more extensive work.
The examiner is also cautioned in using the Scale with vari-
ously handicapped groups first to employ the Scale as designed
for the standard (non-handicapped) sample. The limitations to
social maturity or social competence which are imposed by such
handicaps as blindness, deafness, crippling, mental or physical
deterioration, environmental restraints, lack of opportunity,
parental solicitude, and so on, should first be expressed in the
actual performances of the individual as reflected in the norma-
tive scores. The influence of these handicaps from the point of
view of interpretation as related to the specific developmental
aptitudes of different types of subjects is a matter for clinical
evaluation based on differential norms established for particular
kinds and degrees of handicap. Thus the developmental history
of the individual, his social opportunities, his environmental
limitations, his mental, physical or social restrictions, his moti-
vation, the conventions of time or place, and so on, are all factors
in the item scores which should be evaluated after the standard
score has been assigned. What is desired here is to determine
the competence of the individual in term.s of typical environ-
ments and defined social groups, and for this purpose no apology
or allowance should be made for those circumstances outside the
individual's personal control which handicap his performance.
Thus in interpreting the performance of adults, one may find
it desirable not only to determine the present social competence
of the S, but also to determine his competence at his prime so
far as this can be determined by applying a retrospective exam-
ination employing the Scale as at the age when the S was at his
optimum level of development. This is particularly important
in evaluating the scores of individuals in a state of senescence
or of mental or physical deterioration, and is of critical impor-
tance when the Scale is employed in family history studies.
Again if the Scale is employed in foreign or primitive en-
Summary 263
vironments, no allowance need be made initially for variations
in these environments or in the persons examined until after
the standard Scale has been applied. In many environments the
standard items M^ill at once appear absurd, but this in itself
becomes a measure of the variation in environment. The adapta-
tion of the Scale to foreign and preliterate environments will
therefore require, first, the use of the standard Scale, and sec-
ond, the derivation of substitute scales which would be more in
accord with the particular environment or types of subjects in
question. The comparison between the standard Scale and such
substitute scales would then itself constitute a useful means of
comparing different environments and different types of sub-
jects.
Still another consideration is the question of sex differences
throughout the Scale. We have elsewhere questioned the desir-
ability of constructing a single scale which can be employed with
either sex, and have noted that items which in the prelimi-
nary standardization showed significant sex differences were
later eliminated. A more detailed discussion of this problem is
found in Chapter 9.
There is some question regarding the propriety of avoiding
sex differences, especially at the adult level, in view of the differ-
ent roles played by the sexes in societal organization. The social
status of woman is materially altered through marriage and her
responsibilities are thereby reduced or inhibited in some direc-
tions, but enlarged or facilitated in others. This same influence
is reflected to some extent among married men, but much less
conspicuously. More serious is the generally assumed social
superiority of men when compared with women in almost every
field of social endeavor outside the home. This is a debatable
question ; much evidence indicates that men are not superior to
women in general ability, but do excel them in some directions
and are excelled by them in others. But when the performances
of the sexes are viewed in terms of socially significant achieve-
ment, the superior accomplishments of men are readily evident
in nearly all fields such as government, business, industry, the
professions, the arts, literature, and so on. Whatever may be the
causes for this superiority in male achievement (whether due to
differences in organic structure, biological destiny, social di-
vision of labor, social history, or what not) it seems clear that
there are few matriarchal societies as compared with patri-
archal, and relatively few superior attainments of women as
compared with equal attainments by men.
Both current and historical observation suggest that the
264 Item Specification
material progress of societies as revealed in governmental struc-
ture, military conquest, exploration, social institutions, knowl-
edge, invention, and the arts, derives principally from men. On
the other hand, as Briffault contends, the cultural progress of
society while effected by men is basically prompted by women.
The biological basis of society reflects a tendency for women to
improve their status through marriage by more selective mating
than men display. We are thus confronted with a paradox in
which we find that the basic motivations for social progress are
provided by the women whereas implementation of social
organization is carried out by men. The urge to power and self-
expression is exercised in quite different channels by men as
compared with women, but the ultimate control of social organ-
ization would seem to rest with the women for whose favor men
compete and from whose inspiration their aspirations so fre-
quently and fruitfully derive.
This fundamental difference in the psychology of the sexes
and its influence on the social destinies of the sexes is clearly
revealed by Esther Harding who emphasizes the fundamental
feeling-tone motivation in women as contrasted with the ration-
alized activities of men. The intricate consequences of these
fundamental differences have been to some extent avoided in
constructing this scale which as now constituted affords about
equal recognition for men and women, but may favor men in
spite of a definite effort to equalize the performances of the
sexes in the adult period. Further evidence on sex differences in
item and total scores is presented in Chapter 9.
As to the validity of the items, this is found in the internal
consistency of the normative data as well as in the comparative
evidence from the feeble-minded validation sample. We may
note again the extraordinary similarity of the normative LA
versus feeble-minded SA item-maturation curves. This obtains
in spite of an advantage of 15 to 30 years in life age on the part
of the feeble-minded subjects and in spite of favorable environ-
mental stimulation. Specific differences of statistically reliable
significance and meaningful amounts apparent on some items
do not contradict the essential similarity of the general depend-
ence of item performance on total maturation with relatively
little apparent influence of other variables.
The dependence of social maturity on mental maturity is
self-evident and in accord with rational expectation. Yet in spite
of long experience and observation, the specific relation of social
competence as revealed in the item performances to total devel-
opmental retardation continues to impress us as little short of
Summary 265
astonishing. The practical implications of these results for clas-
sification and training programs for the mentally deficient
hardly require further specification.
Finally, the examiner should be clearly oriented regarding
the relation of environmental stimulation and restraint to social
maturation. We have repeatedly emphasized the role of time,
place and social circumstances. To these should be added the in-
fluence of sex, age per se, social-economic status, conventions,
parent-child relations, regimentation, social crises (political,
financial, military) and so on. The mode of social expression,
but to a lesser extent the level of performance, will obviously
be affected by these variables. Our conviction, however, is that
in respect to the relatively universal activities comprehended
in the items of this scale the effect of these variables is much
less potent than is plausibly anticipated. Indeed, the items have
been formulated with this outcome as one criterion for the re-
tention of items.
But since these issues are susceptible to experimental in-
vestigation we need not here insist upon their cogency. Some of
these variables are reported upon in this Chapter; others are
considered in Chapters 12 and 13. The procedure, therefore, is
subject to experimental control. Certainly the S is not expected
to mature in a social vacuum, but rather to assum.e his pyscho-
biological destiny within a situational matrix (or more correctly
a succession of matrices). But he reacts upon as well as to this
milieu, modifying it as well as being modified by it. The Scale
affords, then, an instrument for evaluating such interaction.
PART III
ADMINISTRATION OF THE SCALE
Chapter 7. Procedures and Scoring
Chapter 8. Illustrative Examinations
Procedures and Scoring
The trend toward interpreting child training in terms of
capacities and needs at various levels of childhood, rather than
on the basis of preconceived adult standards, has done a great
deal to make all our ideas of education more realistic, and by
so much has enriched children's daily experience of living.
The findings of psychology and physiology have made important
contributions to this point of view by giving us an authorita-
tive gauge of what we may fairly expect of a child at any given
time. But in comparing him with his age group we must guard
against laying too heavy emphasis on either short-comings or
precociousness. — Ruth BRicK^fER
General features. The very simplicity of this method of
measuring social maturation is also paradoxically a serious
obstacle to its successful use. The procedure is so natural, and
the content of the items so obvious, that the examiner may
ingeniously overlook numerous pitfalls. "It can't be done" now
becomes "Why, we've always been doing that!"
The Scale lends itself to a variety of uses (Part V), and
these require corresponding degrees of sophistication. For
informal use : ( 1 ) a record blank may be handed to the inform-
ant with the request that he mark the items plus or minus
without more adieu, preceded perhaps only by a general state-
m.ent of what it is all about; or (2) the examiner may himself
ask the questions with only minor elaboration and without pre-
cise regard for the habitual nature of the performances, that is,
without establishing all the factual and temporal aspects of
each item ; or (3) the examiner may use the Scale as a guide to
clinical interview, using such items as seem relevant and dis-
carding others and summarizing the whole as a more standard-
ized procedure than he might otherwise have employed.
Obviously none of these ways of using the Scale can be
considered professionally thorough for standard practice. If
the method is to be used with clinical accuracy, careful attention
to detail is necessary. For this purpose the examiner must be
broadly experienced in general techniques of clinical psychologi-
cal casework or the equivalent in similar disciplines. Standard
application of the Scale requires skilled interviewing rather than
direct examining, or the psychometric type of "testing."
The unskilled interviewer tends to demand objective in-
struments which provide fixed questions and exact scoring. A
Rapport with Informants 267
close approximation to such rigidly objective method is exempli-
fied by the Binet-Simon scales for measuring intelligence. Such
a scale can be given by rote and scored by formula ; its routine
administration requires clerical conscientiousness, but little
clinical versatility. Its more thoughtful use and interpretation,
however, demand extensive clinical sophistication. The Social
Maturity Scale because of its apparent simplicity affords more
latitude but requires greater examining skill than do most
standard psychometric procedures. The broader resourcefulness
required corresponds to that needed for psychotherapy. The
requirements for scoring are rather more objective than those
necessary for the interpretation of results from projective
techniques.
The fine points of administration and scoring can therefore
only be suggested through general and specific instructions.
These cannot be formulated with finality since they would other-
wise hamper the examiner by inhibiting flexible adaptation to
particular situations with which he may be confronted. Conse-
quently the principal methodological difliculty in expounding
this scale has been to mediate between instructions which on the
one hand may seem too vague, and on the other hand too rigid ;
which are definite enough to hold the examiner clearly within
limits, yet flexible enough to allow for variable exigencies with-
out serious loss of essential uniformity (cf. pp. 59-63).
This is a somewhat disconcerting feature of this scale
when first employed by examiners accustomed to the formal
objectivity of routine psychometric examining. The Social
Scale demands constant alertness on the part of the examiner
for adapting himself to those contingencies which require cir-
cumstantial modification of questions and scoring. The
examiner who accepts this appeal to his ingenuity and meets
the challenge candidly, will find the method precise enough in
both instructions and scoring. Evidence for this is found in the
experience of competent examiners. Such competence can
readily be gained from thoughtful practice based on careful
study. The more scientific answer is found in the evidence on
item calibration, total-score standardization and overall
validation (Chapters 6, 9, 10 and 11). Additional assurance
is offered in the results obtained from the numerous application
studies reviewed in Chapter 13 and the clinical applications in
Chapter 14.
Rapport with informants. The standard examination is
conducted by personal interview with a single informant. This
268 Procedures and Scoring
will be someone intimately acquainted with the person under ex-
amination, usually a parent, near relative, foster-relative, close
friend, institutional attendant, or the like. Or the examiner may
be required by circumstances to use as informant any available
person from whom a presumably satisfactory examination can
be obtained. In the self-informing type of examination the sub-
ject will himself serve as informant (p, 292).
For the standard procedure it is not necessary for the
examiner to know or to see the subject,. Indeed, to do so usually
prejudices the examination. The criterion of consistent fulfill-
ment of the performances requires reports of continuing
performances which the examiner need not or cannot derive
from direct observation. If the examiner is personally ac-
quainted with the S, he is likely not to pursue the analysis of
the Scale items to that degree of completeness which is neces-
sary for assigning an unprejudiced score, but might substitute
his own gratuitous opinions instead.
This feature of examining an individual in absentia greatlj;^
increases the usefulness of the method, making practicable the
examination of persons inaccessible or resistive to direct exami-
nation, and also permitting retrospective examinations covering
the life history of the individual at successive age periods,
or at critical moments in that history All that is necessary is
that competent informants be obtainable who can and will sup-
ply adequate information. This makes it possible to obtain
several examinations for the same subject from different
informants, or for different subjects from the same informant.
The examiner's first problem is to insure cooperation with
the informant. Sound factual bases for scoring each item must
be assured. Consequently, it is necessary to evaluate the will-
ingness, honesty, accuracy, candor and freedom from prejudice
conveyed by the informant. To this end the examiner initially
employs questions which will reveal the informant's degree of
acquaintance with the S, his indulgence or hostility toward the
examiner or the S, his vacillation in judgment, wishful or vague
impressions, virtuous opinions, and so on.
Skillful interview quickly reveals the extent to which the
informant is acquainted with the person examined and other-
wise able and willing to supply the necessary data without
prejudice. The results of our many thousands of examinations,
including resort to different informants and different examiners
for the same subjects, give experimental confirmation of this
Rapport with Informants 269
assertion. The inadequately informed, prejudiced, inarticulate
or misleading informant, is quickly recognized by the nature
and inconsistency of his replies. Indeed, the greater difficulty is
the likelihood that the examiner may not be sufficiently compe-
tent in developing the interview with that degree of thorough-
ness and skill which will yield the factual information necessary
for stable scoring. Thus the examiner may be led to inferential
judgments without obtaining the detailed data essential to une-
quivocal assignment of scores. Haste in examining may lead
to lack of thoroughness ; plausibility of the informant may in-
duce the examiner to accept declarative response without sup-
porting detail ; or the temporal onset and habitual nature of the
performance may be poorly established.
The examiner may discount but should not ignore the
informant's mere opinions. He should seek constantly to
establish their detailed foundations and check this in various
ways as indicated below. The examination is to be regarded as
incomplete or inaccurate if the examiner doubts that the inform-
ant is both candid and adequately informed regarding the S.
This condition is generally satisfied by the examiner's shrewd
impression, supported by the actual record of information re-
ceived. It will also be indicated by the number of items scored
"NI" (no information), such items to include answers which
are regarded as inadequate. It will further be sustained by
the inherent consistency of the information from item to item,
or from category to category, and by the overall plausibility of
the S's aptitudes in relation to the item norms.
Rapport with the informant will depend partly on the
purpose of the examination and consequently on the attitudes of
the informant with reference to what is at stake. He may be
somewhat influenced by unusual circumstances affecting the
subject such as blindness, deafness, delinquency, race, color,
and possibly defensive or aggressive prejudices. Or he may
desire to have the subject admitted to or discharged from an
institution, or otherwise advantaged, and this may color the
information given. He may consequently dissimulate, malinger,
or gratuitously misrepresent the S favorably or unfavorably.
These likelihoods require the examiner to continuously evaluate
all circumstances attending the examination and to be on guard
accordingly.
In dealing with the informant, the examiner must therefore
be neither ingratiating nor hostile, neither sentimentally gulli-
ble nor unduly skeptical, but amiable, sympathetic and objective.
270 Procedures and Scoring
He must win the informant to an unprejudiced point of view
and will accomplish this by a fi-iendly persistence in establish-
ing as accurate information as the circumstances permit. A
sense of humor is a definite asset in putting the informant at
ease and in persuading him to a higher degree of candor. An
entre nous feeling should be encouraged while retaining the
dignity of the examination free from gossip, undue intimacy or
personal inquisitiveness. In short the examiner must be recep-
tive without being naive, and must be circumspect without
appearing suspicious, and should avoid projecting his own
reflections into the situation.
Finally there is an ethical aspect to the examination which
requires that the examiner discreetly respect the private affairs
and personal shortcomings of the S as these may become
apparent. He therefore will not embarrass the informant by
improperly insisting upon such evidence or by making disparag-
ing comments. He will instead help both informant and subject
to "save face." He will specifically regard all information as
confidential and will assure the informant that no subsequently
indiscreet use will be made of the information elicited.
Interview technique. Observing these general precautions
the examiner begins a friendly conversation with the informant.
He briefly explains the purpose and procedure. He takes the
informant into his confidence, appeals to his cooperation and
frankness, puts him at ease by a cordial, chatty attitude, and
assures him that the best interests of the S will be served by
unreserved frankness.
The examiner then proceeds to merge the general orienta-
tion of the examination with some overall inquiry regarding the
S himself, recording the relevant data under "Remarks" on
the record blank. How old is he, what sex, color, race or
nationality, marital or social status, religion, degree of school-
ing, state of health, freedom from handicaps? What are the
parental occupations, degrees of education, social and economic
familial status, personal and group associates? What is the
subject's own standing in his family group and community, his
interests, friends, activities, experiences, general personality?
If the S is handicapped in some way, or embarrassed by special
circumstances, the nature and extent as well as the temporal
and social aspects of these limitations should be generally re-
viewed and recorded. Such general orientation may immediate-
ly serve as a basis for scoring particular items of the Scale- The
examiner then consolidates these general questions with a more
Interview Technique 271
specific approach to the direct examination.
This approach immediately reveals the inadvisability of
preformulated interview questions. No single system of inter-
view can offer more than an illusion of adequacy for all
occasions. The S may be infantile or senile, boy or girl, colored
or white, sound or handicapped, free or confined, and so on,
and these variable conditions taken singly or in combination
must determine the further questioning to be followed by the
examiner.
Example. John Picola is a 14-year-old boy of Italian par-
entage who is in juvenile court for theft of a bicycle. Before
disposing of the case the court has referred John for clinical
consideration. The court record is meager, but affords some
preliminary data which serve to assist the examiner in apprais-
ing the honesty and accuracy of the interview. An older sister
is the informant. The father works, the mother speaks English
poorly, the place of examination is the caseworker's office, the
Social Scale is the first detail of preliminary clinical study of
the case. John is in detention ; the sister has come for interview
by telephone appointment; no others present.
Q: You are John's sister, Angela? I want to talk with you ahout him to
see if we can keep him out of further trouble. But first tell me something
about yourself and your family.
A: Well, I'm not sure what you want to know. My father is a mason
has not been very well and John is not so easy to manage and there are
and work is scarce and I am glad I could come instead of him. Mama has
my brothers and sisters.
Q: And you? What do you do?
A: I am a counter girl at Kresge's. How old am I? Twenty. I left high
school last year. Yes, I graduated, but it wasn't so easy.
Q: And the rest of your family?
A: I am the oldest. Besides John I have a sister in high school and a
brother in sixth grade. Yes, they're all right and no trouble at all.
Q: And how are things at home?
A: My mother is not well, as I said, but we manage all right. No, we
don't have a car. A teleplione? Yes, since last year. How much rent?
Thirty dollars a month, but we expect to move to a better neighborhood
soon.
Q: And what about John?
A: Well, he worries us a good deal. No, he's not a bad boy, but not so good
at school and he runs around too much — No, he's never been in special
class, but he's failed twice in school and we wonder if he should go to work.
Q: Is there anything the matter with him? Sick often, or crippled or any-
thing like that?
A: No, he's always been very healthy. Sometimes we think he doesn't hear
so very well, and you can't always trust what he says. How old is he?
Fourteen last month. Born March 7, 1934. Yes, he was born in Camden,
but I was born in Italy before my parents came over.
272 Procedures and Scoring
Q: How do you feel about him?
A: Oh, we all like him, but he worries my mother, and my father thinks
he is too lazy. And as I told you, he runs around too much.
Q: How did he get into this trouble?
A: You see, we live near 15th Street and Green Avenue and when
children go to the stores there they often come on bicycles. And John
was feeling fresh and the other day he took a bike to take a ride.
I believe he meant to bring it back, but he ran into a tree and damaged
the bicycle and left it there. But they found he did it and so —
Q: Well, when he goes around where does he go? I mean how far and
with whom and do you worry about him? (Beginning direct eixamination
with locomotion category.)
Comment. The examiner has thus obtained a general orientation as to
the boy, his family and neig-hborhood from which the direct examination
can proceed and against which the results may be interpreted. Such an
approach is pursued as informally as possible, sympathetically rather than
ingratiatingly, courteously rather than officiously, tactfully and expedi-
tiously but without undue persistence or impatience.
In the above example due regard must be given in the
interpretation of ultimate score to the presumptive mental
backwardness, possible hearing deficiency, incipient untrust-
worthiness. These items can be checked by other methods.
There is an implication of family security, moderate home
circumstances, youthful restiveness, probable maternal laxity
and paternal severity, and a general picture of social mediocrity.
These will be reflected to a degree in the boy's item scores and
total score as factual behavior ad hoc which must not be con-
fused with the corresponding evaluation thereof.
Categorical sequences. Having established the preliminary
conditions with satisfaction, the examiner proceeds with the
direct examination. From this point forward the examination is
best conducted by following the arrangement of items in their
categorical sequences (as detailed in Chapter 6 and abstracted
in the condensed manual). The preliminary information
obtained from the informant indicates the presumptive levels
at which the items within the categories, as well as the cate-
gories themselves, are most probably applicable according to
the age and presumptive development of the S. The examiner
therefore will not find it diflicult to know where to begin either
as to the sequence of categories, or as to the sequence of items
within categories. In the case of young children, the obvious
point of departure is in the self-help category. In the case of
adults the more obvious approach is through the occupational
category. For more general approach, the locomotion category
may be used, or the socialization category. A little experience
enables the examiner to adapt his approach to the conditions of
the examination as indicated by the attitude of the informant,
Categorical Sequences 273
the age or maturity of the S, and the special circumstances
surrounding the examination as a whole.
Example. Thus in the example of John Picola above, the pre-
liminary interview leads naturally to beginning the direct
examination with the locomotion category. John's age, his
sister's comment that he runs around too much, the relation of
this to his offense, and the environmental circumstances all
suggest this departure.
Q: Well, when he "goes around" where does he go? I mean how far and
with whom and do you worry much about him?
A: Of course he goes to school by himself; he doesn't like to go with his
brother most of the time. And he goes t® the store for my mother. Maybe
I don't know what you mean ?
Q: I mean how far does he go as a rule by himself, or when he is out with
his friends. Does he get into trouble this way, or do you feel somebody
should be looking after him?
A: Around home he's all right, but when he's gone all afternoon or out
at night very long we start looking for him or we wonder what he's
doing. (This reply touches the self -direction category and may be fol-
lowed up at this point or postponed for more detail later.)
Q: Does he go outside of Camden, say to Philadelphia or Atlantic City?
A: Not unless we are along or he is with someone we know real well.
Once he went to Philadelphia and got home all right, but my mother was
worried and papa gave him a talking to. He talks about going but he
hasn't tried it again. Could he if we let him? I guess maybe, but we'd
be worried till he got back.
Q: And here in Camden?
A: He goes more than we think is good for him, with older boys mostly
instead of by himself. It's all right if he doesn't go too far from our
neighborhood. Sometimes he visits my aunt where he's been before.
And as I told you he gets into little scrapes like taking this bicycle. Of
course he doesn't have his own money except a little now and then (again
touching self -direction category).
Comment. Referring to the item definitions (Chapter 6) and the scoring
instructions (later in this chapter), we note that Item 96 (Goes to
distant points alone) is failed; 92 (nearby places) is also failed but is
emerging toward success since he goes somewhat surreptitiously without
approval and might succeed if he were more trustworthy (score is not "no
opportunity" since disapproval is not strictly enforced but is due to his
immaturity); 77 (home town) is passed marginally (because of mild
untrustworthiness ) ; 61 (to school) is passed. The preceding locomotion
items (12, 18, 29, 32, 45 and 53) are also passed, being in this case
automatically present or assumed in Item 61.
The examiner then proceeds in like manner with the self-direction cate-
gory for which he has leads on certain items from the locomotion
category.
In general, once a category has been started it is best to
complete that category before proceeding to another unless
special difficulties or leads are encountered which make it
advisable to shift to some other category. Since the items are
arranged in a standard order of difficulty within the categories,
the examiner may conduct his inquiry within the category from
274 Procedures and Scoring
easy to difficult items, or from difficult to easy as may be moist
expedient.
It will greatly assist the examination if the examiner has
broadly memorized the items which compose the Scale, their
age-group locations, and their definitions for scoring. Memo-
rized familiarity with the categorical arrangement of items will
also expedite the examination, since the responses to single
questions may often be used as a basis for scoring a whole series
of items and lead naturally to well-directed further questions.
It is desirable for the examiner to pursue each related
group of items as a unit and then score the items individually
on the basis of such unit questioning. For this purpose the
detailed item, instructions are presented in their progressive
sequences within the categories (Chapter 6) rather than in their
numerical sequences for the Scale as a whole. The record sheet
is arranged with the items in normative sequence (mean LA
progression) without reference to the categorical arrangements.
Theoretically, each S is scored on every item, but in actual
practice the extension of this principle to absurd extremes be-
comes obvious. Moreover, since certain of the lower items are
prerequisite to success on some of the higher items, in these
circumstances inquiries on the higher item will automatically
establish the information for scoring the lower items. On the
other hand, since all the items are not successive degrees of
the same performance, care must be taken to score separately
every item in respect to which there might be failure or success
regardless of its position in the Scale as a whole. This is par-
ticularly noteworthy if special handicaps are present which
might cause failure on lower items while not interfering with
success on higher items.
For example, we have examined an S of LA 8 years with a
final SA score of 8.5 years, who nevertheless failed on all
locomotion items above Year II because of specific untrust-
worthiness. Indeed, it was this behavior problem (a persistent
tendency to set fires and be destructive) which brought the
child for examination, and the major purpose of the examination
was reflected in this particular difficulty.
Likewise in the case of special physical handicaps, such as
crippling or deafness, the range of scores may be affected by
the specific disability. Therefore, success on lower items may
not be automatically assumed in all cases, nor may failure be
assumed in all circumstances for higher items. This is particu-
Categorical Sequences 275
larly true with senescents whose success in the adult ranges in
some particulars may be accompanied by failure in the juvenile
ranges as a result of infirmity or deterioration due to advanced
age.
The examiner is urged to record the essential information
on which each item is scored. In doing so he may score a
particular item by referring to relevant data recorded else-
where. Such cross-reference may be indicated by item-record
notation such as "see Item — ," or "see Remarks." Thus, in
scoring "Bathes self unaided," all other items involved in self-
help as to cleanliness are scored cumulatively. Similarly, "Cares
for self at table," automatically includes all other items on self-
help eating, each of which must be established before the total
can be assumed. On the other hand, in the occupational cate-
gory, this continuation is less apparent, so that "Performs
responsible routine chores," while including small remunerative
work, routine household tasks, and little household tasks, does
not necessarily include simple creative work, or use of utensils,
or use of pencil for drawing. Thus, some categories are seen to
be more definitely progressive in the same essentials than is true
for other categories. This is clarified in the definition of items.
Example. In the self -direction category most of the items bear
on discretion in the use of money (Items 60, 76, 87, 94, 95,
100, 102, 105, 112). But intervening items in this category
deal with more personal forms of responsibility (Items 83, 93,
97, 99, 101) which also involve self -direction. It is noted else-
where that the categorical arrangements are designed to aid
examining; their grouping as to like modes of performance
need not be insisted upon.
To illustrate from the example of John Picola, note that the ques-
tions on locomotion brought incidental replies on self-direction. These
may now be amplified by shifting from the former to the latter category.
Q: You said, Angela, that your brother sometimes goes out by himself
during the day. Tell me more about that.
A: I said that when he goes out in the afternoon or at night we don't
feel too good about it. My mother likes to know where he is and what he
Is doing. He is supposed to tell her where he's going and when he is
coming back. Generally he isn't gone more than an hour or two unless
we know where he is. Almost always if he is away very long he is with
older boys instead of by himself. And at night we have to know where
he is. He is not supposed to leave our neighborhood in the evening and
he has to be home before nine o'clock unless it's something special.
Q: But can't he be trusted alone?
A: Oh yes, when he's here at home he's all right if we're not gone too
long, maybe a couple of hours. And when he's doing odd jobs of work
(touching occupation items) he is real dependable. It's only that he is
easily led by other boys.
276 Procedures and Scoring
Comment. Item 83 (Is left to care for self) Is thus readily passed. Items
93 and 97 (Goes out daytime unsupervised and Goes out nights un-
restricted) are dubious but must be marked failed. Item 101 (Assumes
personal responsibility) is obviously failed.
The restrictions imposed by his family reflect the need for concern
in view of John's personal irresponsibility when away from home on his
own. But the urge to dominate his own activities is apparent. Items 93
and 97 are emergent and may force themselves in spite of family solicitude
and their relatively mature placement in the Scale (being several years
above his other performances).
Here we see personal dominance forcing a situation and thereby
encountering consequent hazards. John's poor judgment has already led
to his arrest for theft as a result of urges which his social immaturity
did not enable him to satisfy legitimately.
Q: And you said before something about his having a little money to
spend? How much does he have and what does he do with it?
A: Only what he earns at odd jobs, and that's not much, and he is
supposed to give it to my mother who gives it back to him a little at a
time.
Q: He has no regular allowance even from what he earns?
A: No. Only as he asks for it when he wants to buy something or go
somewhere.
Q: He goes to the store for you?
A: Yes. He's good that way. You might think he'd "snitch" some or
spend it on himself. But he has always been honest with money. Maybe
he's afraid of what papa would do to him!
Q: Well, what money does he spend on himself?
A: I meant to say he has good judgment, too, about money. Much better
than in other things, where he is kind of willful. He likes to buy our
groceries — makes him fee] important. And he does as he is told or some-
times even better. And you'd be surprised how he can make change.
They never cheat Mm.
Q: But for himself?
A: He's good at that, too. And my mother likes to have him learn how
to buy his own things — like when he needs a cap or have his shoes fixed
or he wants some thing^s from a catalogue (touching communication items)
like a baseball — which he can get cheaper that way. Once he saved up
for a baseball suit. And I guess if we had helped him save for a bicycle
he saw at Sears maybe he wouldn't have taken this one.
Q: Does he buy his own clothes?
A: Only little things like a belt or fancy handkerchiefs. My mother goes
along when he needs shoes and she likes to pick out his shirts or anything
that costs very much.
Comment. We see here responsibility in money matters as a special
aptitude compensating for the premature drive for locomotor independ-
ence. This is in spite of some scholastic backwardness. And in contrast
with parental restraint on locomotion (because of his difficulties in that
direction) we observe parental encouragement in handling money (be-
cause of relative aptitude in that direction and in spite of limited family
resources).
Items passed are 60 (Is trusted with money) and 76 (Makes minor
purchases). Items failed are 87 (Buys own clothing accessories) which Is,
however, emerging, 94 (Has own spending money), and (from logical
sequence as well as direct information) Item 95 and beyond in the
monetary sequences of this category.
Habitual Performance 277
It has proved inadvisable to indicate the categorical
arrangement of the items on the standard record blank itself.
A.t first thought, to do so would appear to be an advantage as
assisting the examiner in mastering the Scale. Experience
has indicated, however, that if the blank alone is used too early
in the examiner's experience prior to complete mastery of the
instructions, the examiner is likely to be satisfied with less than
that amount of detailed information which is necessary to score
the items beyond question in terms of their elaborated defini-
tions. If the examiner will err in the beginning in the direction
of more than necessary completeness, both as to number of items
employed and the amount of information obtained regarding
each item, he will subsequently be able to curtail the extent
and detail of the examination without detrimental result. If,
on the other hand, this curtailment of the examination becomes
established before the Scale is thoroughly mastered, then the
result is almost certain to lack precision. No measurement
scale is entirely free from the influence of the personal equation
of the examiner on the probable error of the measure. But such
influence can be materially reduced by sound practice.
Habitual performance. The examiner is emphatically urged
to avoid inquiring can the S do so and so, but rather does he
usually or customarily do so. All leading questions which might
possibly indicate a desired response, as well as all test implica-
tions, should be avoided. The examiner is urged to follow gener-
al answers with questions designed to produce elaboration of
these answers. For this purpose he should avoid interrogating
the informant in terms of the item captions, but should phrase
the question in some more general form. In this way he may
encompass a series of items in a single line of questioning. For
example, instead of asking "Does the S eat with a fork," it is
better to inquire "To what extent does the S care for himself at
the table." Similarly, instead of asking "Does the S wash his
own face," it is better to ask "How much does the S do for him-
self in respect to personal cleanliness." Again, instead of ask-
ing "Does the S perform routine household tasks," it is better to
inquire "What kind of work does the S do around the house."
From such general questions, as contrasted with leading ques-
tions suggested by the specific item captions, the examiner may
proceed toward the simpler or the more difficult tasks in the
same major activity, and so may score a group of items on the
basis of a single set of questions.
Consequently in applying the items of this scale, the
examiner should inquire as to the time of onset, frequency,
278 Procedures and Scoring
manner and extent of the S's performances. Instead of accept-
ing an unelaborated "yes" or "no" to leading questions, he
should obtain substantial factual evidence from which some one
else might form a judgment. Hence the informant is to be asked
how often and how long the S has been doing so and so, when
he began, how frequently if at all he receives assistance, under
what conditions it is done, how the performance is made mani-
fest, what occasion there may be, what hazards or difficulties
are evident. On the basis of such evidence, assisted by the
standard definition of the item, the examiner assigns one or
another of the scores which signify the passing or failing of
each item. This is facilitated by the sequence of items in cate-
gories which permits ready distinctions as to variety and degree
of success. (For simplicity of exposition these details are omit-
ted in the example of John Picola but are elaborated in the
overall illustrative examinations in Chapter 8.)
Familiarity with the categorical arrangements of items
will enable the examiner to move smoothly from one category
to another in spontaneous accord with the informant's responses
so that the examination may proceed informally without embar-
rassing breaks, and without undue abruptness in trend of
thought. This smoothness in interview not only assists the
examiner to conduct a rapid and effective examination, but also
assists the informant to respond more easily, fully and accu-
rately with the information desired. To this end the examiner
encourages the informant to respond spontaneously without
undue interruption, interspersing only encouraging remarks
and specific questions as the occasion demands. If the examiner
is unpracticed in such facility, or has not memorized the Scale
as a whole, he should work from the manual during the exami-
nation, using the categorical definitions of items to guide both
the direction and extent of his questioning. Even the experi-
enced examiner should have the manual accessible for ready
use, not relying too unreservedly on memory, and should from
time to time studiously refresh his technique by frequent review
of procedure and scoring.
Scoring principles. It is desirable to record full data and
to score each series of items or each category as a whole as soon
as the information in that series or category is adequately
established. Scoring should not be postponed to the end of the
examination, but should continue throughout the examination.
This again requires memorized facility which can be gained
only by thorough familiarity with the Scale and the item
Scoring Principles 279
arrangements. It also enables the examiner to check each item
fully at the point where this is most practicable and to avoid
regret after the informant has been dismissed. The record
blank provides adequate space in which the examiner should
enter verbatim answers or at least suflScient essential notations
for him or for someone else to review the results later if desired.
The examiner should not infer evidence unless this is amply
warranted. It will not usually be practicable to record all the
information received ; some of this may have to be generalized
inferentially rather than precisely, but such generalizations
should be conscientiously justifiable.
Care should be observed not to make the same data serve
too many purposes. All information will shed light on the
examination as a whole. Some may apply to more than the
immediate items under consideration. Yet each item must have
its own justification whether independently of or included in
the others. Since not all items are successive degrees of similar
performances, care must be taken to score separately every
item in respect to which there might be failure or success
regardless of its position in the Scale as a whole. This is
particularly noteworthy if special handicaps are present which
might cause failure on lower Items while not interfering with
success on higher items.
The "telescoping'' of items from one category to another
tends to defeat the ultimate purpose of item specification. On
the other hand, each item is only a specific moderation of a
general aptitude. Hence there should be internal consistency
among item performances, and therein the examiner finds
confidence in the reliability of the evidence as a whole as well
as in detail.
The temporal aspect of item evaluation is essential to this
method of gauging social competence. Special care must there-
fore be observed to insure the habitual nature of the perform-
ance on each item. If there is doubt on this point, the examiner
should satisfy himself as to when such item performance began,
how long it has continued, how frequently or intermittently it is
expressed, what is the degree of success, how much help,
supervision or encouragement the S receives. Or, alternatively,
has the S perhaps "graduated" to more important performances
which either supplant the item or incorporate it? What are
the environmental obstacles to successful performance, especial-
ly in case the S can or could perform if environmental oppor-
tunity or encouragement were afforded? Care must here be
280 Procedures and Scoring
taken not to allow too generously for restrictions of environ-
ment, and the S must be neither penalized unduly nor too read-
ily credited on items where he fails to dominate his environment
in the absence of genuine prohibitions beyond his control.
This habitual feature of item success or failure will vary
somewhat according to the nature of the item and the environ-
mental circumstances or "occasions" which affect it. Conven-
tional periodicity of performance must be reckoned with. Most
people do not travel to distant points alone habitually in the
sense of "all the time," but only when they have occasion to do
so. Or one may not invariably spend one's money providently.
Hence the usualness of performance is related to need, occasion
or opportunity, and here again the examiner must exercise
discreet judgment.
Information should be sought regarding items on which
performance was formerly successful but has for various rea-
sons been discontinued. These are scored "F" (formerly).
"F" scoring should not be confused with "NO" (no opportunity)
scoring, and both of these should be carefully distinguished
from performance which has been lost due to deterioration or
disability. "Has the S ever habitually done so?" "Why did he
stop doing so?" "Do you think (assuming no disablement) he
will do so again in other circumstances?" These are leading
questions which will indicate the substantial worth of perform-
ances which have become suspended or discontinued.
Particular difficulty is encountered in the scoring of items
when the environment either prohibits the subject from parti-
cular performances or does not afford necessity or encourage-
ment for such performance. These are classed for scoring
purposes as "NO" (no opportunity) items. Some of these
situations might better be described as "no occasion" rather than
"no opportunity," if the environment does not afford sufficient
stimulus or need. On the other hand, the S should not too loose-
ly be absolved of exercising dominant initiative in these respects.
Hence, in scoring items as NO, special care should be taken to
establish the factual basis for the opinions expressed by the
informant regarding such performances. Such questions as
"What makes you think so?" or "How long would it take him
to learn?" or "Do you think he would do so continuously and
without trouble?" or "Why doesn't he create his own opportuni-
ties?" will assist the examiner in evaluating the informant's
opinion. Special care should also be taken to guarantee that the
environment really affords no opportunity, does provide genuine
Scoring Principles 281
restrictions, always bearing in mind that the Scale assumes that
the mature and competent individual tends to find some way
of surmounting or sidestepping the absence of opportunity if
the urge and ability to perform are developmentally inherent.
Since the sympathy of the examiner is usually with the S,
he is inclined to be over-generous toward him on the scoring
of items in respect to which there are apparent environmental
limitations. This is particularly true when the S does not
perform an item within the immediate range of plus scores yet
where a minus score seems to be out of place. The examiner
should, therefore, make certain that in the use of +N0 scores,
:;he S really has no genuine bar to providing his own opportuni-
ty. If, for example, the environment appears to limit self-
expression on the ground that "It isn't done," or "It is contrary
to regulations," or because of parental prejudice, the examiner
should make sure that the item is not in fact performed in spite
of those restraints by at least some S's under substantially the
same circumstances. Occasionally the informant may be una-
ware of some surreptitious performances, or ill informed as to
what the S does as compared to what he thinks the S does.
Similarly, in some institutional environments the S may reveal
successful performance on items which are officially prohibited.
The examiner should, therefore, avoid ingenuousness regarding
the true situation. When the S is really capable, prohibitions
may be waived, disapproval forgotten, supervision relaxed,
exceptions granted. Or the performance may be clandestine,
guileful, sporadic, subtly self-assertive, openly rebellious.
Competence, like love, finds a way !
Use of "NI" (no information) scoring will be helpful if
the informant is uninformed, inadequately informed, unwilling
to inform, vacillating, insincere, or on NO items may be reluct-
ant to venture an opinion. Such scoring serves to call attention
to incomplete or unsatisfactory evidence for record purposes,
and the number and location of such scores is a direct indication
of the adequacy of the examination.
In the range between fully satisfactory plus scores and
undoubtedly minus scores it may be difficult to assign unequiv-
ocal scores for all items. Some of these may be due to F, NO or
NI evidence. Others will be genuinely borderline because: (a)
the performance may be occasionally but not habitually success-
ful; (b) the performance may be habitually but incompletely
successful; (c) the performance may be embarrassed by
environmental circumstances, uncertainty of evidence, or diffi-
282 Procedures and Scoring
culty of interpreting the item definition; (d) the performance
as reported on a given item may be out of harmony with reports
on related items or with general expectation from the aura of
the examination as a whole.
The very diflScuIty of such borderline scoring indicates the
intermediate character of these performances. Such items may
be developmentally emergent rather than maturely established.
Or they may reflect incipient deterioration or environmental
variability. As a practical way of resolving such scores the
items concerned may be scored "it" (plus-minus). For stand-
ard practice such performances should be complete as to con-
tent but incomplete as to habitualness. It is extremely difficult
to assign plus-minus scores to habitual but incomplete perform-
ance, since the variability of content is more elusive than that of
customariness. However, it makes little practical difference,
since any item which cannot readily be scored as plus or minus
may thereby be judged as of intermediate degree of success,
since it is only a question of whether the balance of doubt is
toward success or toward failure. Assuming no constant tend-
ency for the examiner to be characteristically lenient or severe,
the errors due to balance of doubt will tend to cancel in the total
result, but should frankly be regarded as borderline perform-
ances for purposes of detailed interpretation. If such scores are
numerous, or widely scattered, they suggest vacillation of judg-
ment on the part of the informant or the examiner.
To those unpracticed in the use of the Scale the specific
scoring of items may appear equivocal. This is because atten-
tion may be focused on doubtful rather than assured perform-
ance. The examiner will quickly observe in actual examining
that certain items are passed or failed without question, and
that doubtful scoring is a problem only on doubtful perform-
ances, namely those which are intermediate, borderline or
emergent. The very intermediacy of such performances limits
their number (in a given examination) and reveals their bor-
derlinity. The examiner then addresses himself conscientiously
to these dubious performances and finds their definition some-
what unprecise for sharp delineation. This problem is readily
resolved, and the examiner relieved of undue apprehension,
ambivalence or skepticism if he will remind himself that the
"easy" items (for a particular S) and also the "hard" items
pose no such scoring diflSculties. Hence the very doubt raised
by the difficulty of precisely scoring a given item is ipso facto
evidence of the item's borderlinity. The problem of doubtful
scoring should therefore not be taken too seriously; it may
Scoring Summary 283
instead be considered as additional evidence of marginal item
competence.
Finally, it is necessary to warn the examiner again that
the performances are not to be considered as test situations, but
are to be viewed as established modes of behavior which reveal
stable achievement. If the item permits being observed as a test
situation, this may be used only as a check on the reliability of
the informant. But the test situation merely reveals that the
task can be done rather than that it usually is done under vari-
able circumstances. We specifically desire here to measure
performance rather than capability. Some of the performances
may never be acquired in the life history of the individual be-
cause of specific mental or physical handicaps. Note also that
specific performances may be lost through temporary or perma-
nent mental or physical disability and especially in the deterio-
rated years of senescence, or in the physical results of accidents
or disease. In all such cases each item should be scored in order
to obtain a complete picture of the individual, even though the
significance of such an item, when interpreted in the light of
the accompanying circumstances, may have to be allowed for.
Scoring summary. We may now summarize overall scor-
ing as follows :
(a) Score item plus (-[-) if it seems clear that the essen-
tials for that item, as indicated by the item definitions, are
satisfied and habitually performed without need of undue (w
artificial incentive, or with only occasional assistance in case
of special circumstances.
Plus credit may be assumed for all items below that
succession of pluses which provides the basal score for the
Scale as a whole, assuming no limiting handicaps to expression.
For such basal scores at least two consecutive pluses are desir-
able within each category appropriate to the range of the
examination. The highest continuous plus score for all items is
considered the basal score, allowance being made for lack of
opportunity, as noted below. If the S is handicapped by signifi-
cant mental, physical or social disability, all items likely to be
influenced thereby should be scored factually rather than
inferentially.
(b) If formerly successful performance has been outgrown
or temporarily discontinued, the item is scored "-fF" (former-
ly) . For such scoring the recorder must be convinced that the
performance could easily be re-established if desirable, or that
284 Procedures and Scoring
the item is superseded by some obviously higher degree of
similar behavior. Score +F also those items which the subject
does not perform at the time of examination because of present
temporary restraint or lack of opportunity, but which he
formerly did perform successfully when no such restraints
were imposed or when the opportunity was present. Plus-F
scores are to receive full credit.
F-score credit is to be allowed where previously successful
performance is interfered with by temporary ill health, by
institutional commitment, or by other critical circumstances.
Credit is not allowed for previously successful performance
which has been lost as a result of senescence or relatively
permanent mental or physical impairment. Credit is not allowed
ivhere restrictions have proved advisable because of the
unfavorable consequences already experienced in the absence of
such restrictions.
(c) Score "-f-NO" (no opportunity) those items which the
subject has not previously performed and does not now perform
because of environmental restraint or environmental lack of
opportunity, such as parental solicitude, arbitrary adult domina-
tion, attendance at high school or college, institutional restric-
tions, or other grossly limiting circumstances, but which the
subject presumably would perform habitually or could quickly
learn to perform if such limitations to behavior were removed.
Such scores do not apply when performance is or has been
limited by permanent physical or mental disability.
Plus-NO scores receive full credit within the range of the
otherwise continuous plus scores. They receive no credit within
the range of the otherwise continuous minus scores. They
receive half -credit within the intermediate range. If the +N0
score is the last of the otherwise continuous plus scores, or
immediately precedes the otherwise continuous minus scores, it
is counted in the intermediate range and receives half -credit.
This system of crediting -f-NO scores is a compromise
allowance for presumptive performance in the absence of
reasonable opportunity for such performance in fact. It is
frankly an expedient to avoid penalizing a subject whose
performance on a given item is artificially restricted. Such
scores will not affect the total score materially in most instances
(except in some institutional environments). The effect that
such scores may produce can be allowed for in interpreting the
results in a given case or in a given group according to the
limiting circumstances.
Scoring Summary 285
Care must be taken not to be ingenuous or too generous in
estimating limitations of opportunity or to confuse such limita-
tions with actual immaturity, inability or irresponsibility since
the fundamental purpose of the Scale is to measure the extent to
which the person progressively dominates his environment and
creates, demands or justifies his own freedom of action as age
increases. This is the principal evidence of maturing social
competence and care must be taken not to discount it naively.
Such items, therefore, should be viewed skeptically as well as
sympathetically.
It is impracticable to provide alternate items in cases of
limited opportunity, as this would require an alternate for each
item and these alternates might be subject to the same difficul-
ties as the items they are intended to replace. It also seems
inadvisable to omit such items in a given case and provide an
adjusted score on the basis of the number of items actually used.
As a matter of fact, these items provide specially significant
information for evaluating individual social competence.
For purposes of guidance, training or treatment, these
items afford suggestions for increasing social maturity. It is
important, however, that the recorder be free from prejudice in
assuming that restraint or lack of opportunity is not caused by
social irresponsibility of the person scored, as for example in
relation to ordinary environmental dangers where the success-
ful avoidance of ordinary hazards is itself the measure of
social success. Care should be exercised also regarding the
limitations to behavior imposed by generally accepted social
conventions, especially such as vary with locality or the times.
Actual use of the Scale within a number of institutions for
the mentally, socially and physically handicapped has demon-
strated the practicability of the use of +N0 scores in restricted
environments, and suggests that alternate items or scales are
not necessary for such groups.
(d) Score plus-minus (±) those items which are in
transitional or emergent state, that is, which are occasionally
but not ordinarily performed with full success. Such perform-
ances should be complete as to content (degree of success) but
not yet fully established as to habitualness, rather than vice
versa. These scores are to be given half-credit in the final
summation for total score.
Borderline scores are to be expected in the borderline
range. They will reflect: (a) timidity, indiff'erence, low incen-
286 Procedures and Scoring
tive, dependency, lack of self-assertion, and the like on the part
of the subject; (b) solicitude, displeasure or domination on
the part of parents or elders; (c) special hazards in the
particular environment, and so on.
Subjects will be encountered who can perform (and some-
times do), or presumably could quickly learn to perform a
given item, but who for various reasons generally do not do so,
especially in cases where the subject enjoys a certain degree of
sentimental dependence or assistance. In such instances the
examiner must decide whether the item is to receive full credit
as a genuine capability not always exercised, or whether the
ability is only emergent. In the former case the item is to be
scored full credit (see [e] below) ; in the latter case half -credit.
Judgment is required to decide whether such assistance as may
be given is really due to sentiment, solicitude, expediency, lack
of occasion or need, or whether such assistance conceals a
genuine lack of performance.
The use of ± is to be discouraged for merely doubtful
performance. While such a practice has certain advantages, it
tends to relieve the examiner of thorough work. Really doubtful
scores which do not reflect emergent maturation should be scored
frankly plus or frankly minus and the doubt regarding them
indicated by prefixing "?" to the assigned score.
(e) Items which otherwise might be scored 4-NO but
which represent "no occasion" rather than no opportunity as
defined above, may be scored "-|-NOc" and treated as if H-NO.
This notation is for record purposes.
(f ) Similarly, the notation "NI" (no information, or not-
sufficient information) may be added to any score which must
be assigned inferentially. Such NI scores Indicate presumptive
performance based on the aura of the examination as a whole
for items which do not shield adequate scores due to lack of
reliable data or due to equivocal or contradictory information.
These NI scores are necessary for record purposes.
Their evaluation for item credit in summation remains
somewhat arbitrary. Extended experience warrants the practice
of allowing otherwise standard credit for NI scores as assigned
inferentially. However, if more than five (5) NI scores are
unavoidable within the range between continuously plus and
continuously minus scores, then the examination as a whole is
to be regarded as clinically unreliable and should be repeated
with some other informant who is more intimately acquainted
with the S.
Total Scores 287
(g) Score minus ( — ) those items in respect to which the
person scored has not yet succeeded at all, or only rarely, or
only under extreme pressure or unusual incentive. Such scores
receive no credit. A complete record should show at least two
consecutive minus scores in each category appropriate to the
range of application.
Minus scores must be assigned for all failures in perform-
ance without regard to causes therefor (except as noted for
F-scores, NO-scores and Nl-scores). This scale seeks to
measure social competence as expressed in fact or ad hoc.
Hence no allowance may be made in the examination procedure
itself for the reasons which underlie lack of social competence.
Such allowance is, of course, essential to the interpretation of
results. This interpretation is the ultimate purpose of the
examination and would be defeated if mitigating circumstances
are permitted to influence item scoring. The examiner must
therefore conscientiously resist the temptation to make conces-
sions for the effects of crippling, sensory defects, conduct
disturbances, social maladjustment, mental disturbance, person-
ality defects, immaturity itself, and the like; the effect of
these on social success is the point at issue. . These issues may
properly be dealt with by the method of double-scoring (p. 292) .
The interpretation of these performances is to be related to
independent estimates, measures or observations of the circum-
stances which may be influencing those performances. We
return to this point in reporting trial studies of the Scale with
handicapped individuals and groups (Chapters 11-14).
Score " — NO" those items respecting which special re-
straints or lack of opportunity may be noted, but which presum-
ably would not or could not be performed even if the opportunity
were provided. This scoring does not affect the final score, but
serves to indicate that the disability is in the S and not due
to some other cause.
Total scores. After at least two plus scores have been
established at the beginning of each category, and two minus
scores at the end, some attention may well be paid to terminat-
ing the examination neatly to the satisfaction of both examiner
and informant. It is advisable not to close the examination too
abruptly, but rather to return to the general friendly conversa-
tion with which it was begun, commending the informant, for
his cooperation and conscientiousness, as well as for the adequa-
cy of the information, his interest in the S, and the material
benefits gained from his assistance. Fresquently in such a termi-
288 Procedures and Scoring
nal chat, additional information of value may be brought forth.
If both parties to the examination express their mutual satis-
faction, good feeling is promoted as well as confidence in the
returns. In situations where continuing examining is desired,
this good feeling will spread among other informants and
toward other examiners, and a progressive state of cooperation
will be promoted. However, the examiner must exercise discre-
tion in commenting upon the results of the examination and
should not reveal the obtained scores unless specifically-
warranted.
In closing the examination a check on the obtained score is
sought by asking for the informant's general estimate of the
subject's age-level of social maturity in the light of the inter-
view just completed. This "informant's estimate" is readily
obtained without prejudice by asking the informant to express
an opinion within outside limits (if he cannot express it more
precisely) and then assuming the mid-point of those limits as a
mid-estimate. Such judgments are to be expressed in terms of
the average-normal person at progressive age-periods of social
competence. This estimate should be requested at the close of
the examination rather than earlier. If it is not in reasonable
accord with the obtained SA score, then the examiner should
proceed to harmonize the discrepancy, but without attempting
to modify the informant's judgment except as this may have
been improperly conceived.
The total score is the sum of scores as provided above. This
is obtained by adding to the basal score (the highest of all the
continuous plus scores) the additional scattered credits beyond
the basal score, and expressing this sum as a total number of
items passed (counting two half -credits as one item).
SA scores. This total (point) score is then converted to
an SA (year) score from the conversion table (p. 290), or by
interpolation from the record sheet. For this purpose the item
numbers may be used to represent total point scores. The
position in the year-scale of this item-number equivalent may
then be reduced to an interpolated SA value.
Thus a total point score of 61 equals the "top" item-number
of year V-VI, which would be SA 5.99, or 6.0. A total score of
62 would mean one-fourth of a year beyond SA 6.0, which is
6.25 or 6.3. A total score of 69 would mean four-fifths of a year
beyond SA 7.0, which is 7.8. A total score of 83 would mean
two-thirds of a year beyond SA 11.0, which is 11.67, or 11.7. If
the SA interval represents more than one year, this would be
SA Scores 289
calculated proportionately. Thus a total score of 88 represents
four-fifths of the XII - XV year-interval, or 12.0 + (5^ X 3),
= 12.0 + 2.4, = 14.4.
The general rule for interpolation is therefore as follows:
(1) Subtract the obtained total score (as an item number)
from the top (equivalent item number) of the year group
preceding that in which the actual score is found ;
(2) express this remainder as a fractional part of the
year group in which the total score is found (based on the
number of items in that group and the year-range of the group) ;
(3) add this value to the top year value of the lower
limiting group.
EXAMPLE
Male, life age 14.9, Binet age age 7.2, Binet IQ 51.
Items :
Scores:
Credit:
55-59
+
59
60
+ N0
1
61-63
+
3
64
+ N0
.5
65
0
+
1
67
.5
68
+
1
Items:
Scores :
Credit:
69
+ F
1
70
-t-
.5
71
+
0
72
+
1
73
0
74-76
0
77
+ N0
0
78-86
0
Basal score 63, additional credits 5.5, total score 68.5.
Age-score (SA) = 7.0 + .7 = 7.7 years.
The total point-score (in this case 68.5) is converted to an age-score
(SA = 7.7) as follows:
(1) On the record blank find the year-interval in which the total
point-score (68.5) occurs (year VII-VIII).
(2) Note the item-number (65) which marks the end of the preceding
year (VI-VII).
(3) Subtract this item-number (65) as a point-score from the total
point-score (68.5).
(4) Divide this remainder (68.5 — 65 = 3.5) by the number of
items (5) in the year-group (VII-VIII) in which the total point-
score (68.5) occurs.
(5) Multiply this result (3.5 -^ 5 =: .7) by the year value of the
interval (in this case 1 year) in which the total point-score (68.5)
occurs.
(6) Add this result (.7x1 = .7) to the end value (6.99 or 7.0) of
the lower limiting year (VI-VII).
(7) This result (7.0 -f .7 = 7.7) is the interpolated SA-score
corresponding to the total point-score (68.5).
The social quotient (SQ) is obtained by dividing the social age (SA)
by the corresponding life age (LA) and multiplying by 100 (in this cas<
7.7 ^ 14.9 X lOO = 52).
290 Procedures and Scoring
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A
X!
Special Procedures ' 291
This exposition of interpolating SA scores from point
scores makes the procedure look more complex than it is in
fact. As a convenient alternative Table A affords a ready
reference for obtaining SA equivalents from total point scores
directly from the appropriate entries.
We advocate expressing age-values in years and decimals
rather than in total months, years and months, or years and
fractions. We also favor the practice of calculating life age
values to nearest whole month, disregarding days. The errors
thus introduced are slight except for very low ages and are
merged with the probable error of measurement. Calculations
may be approximated to the nearest first decimal for age values
and to the nearest second figure for SQ's below 100. Some
workers may prefer more exact arithmetic but such accuracy
in calculation, while overlooking inaccuracies of measurement,
yields only a nicety which is more apparent than real. For
the reader's convenience the following approximation to decimal
years is offered for corresponding calendar months.
Months 123456789 10 11 12
Decimal- .1 .2 .3 .3 .4 .5 .6 .7 .8 .8 .9 1.0
year
Special procedures. Various modifications of the standard
examination may be employed for particular purposes. Among
these are: (1) self -informing, (2) double-scoring, (3) retro-
spective examining, (4) use of multiple informants, (5) use of
history data or literature, (6) description and counseling, and
(7) informal use. Such departures should always be noted in
reporting results.
These modified techniques are here briefly described and
elsewhere alluded to (see index). Some of them have been
investigated or employed in exploratory studies (Chapter 13),
Although some of these devices yield scores which apparently
are closely comparable to the scores obtained by standard
examining, such results should be cautiously interpreted since
normative data and correlative evidence on reliability, validity,
and probable error of measurement have not yet been system-
atically established. Aside from the obtained SA's, information
about the S may be obtained in these ways which may contribute
to an understanding of the S not readily obtainable by the
standard method.
292 Procedures and Scoring
1. In the self -informing examination the S is interviewed
as his own informant instead of by means of a proxy. Logically
this should be the standard type of examination, since presum-
ably the S is better informed about himself than are his
acquaintances or relatives. But self-informing has the disad-
vantage that the S may be reluctant to describe his own social
behavior as candidly as this may be done by others. He might
through modesty understate his habitual attainments or for
various reasons misrepresent them. Or the intimate nature of
the interview might prove personally embarrassing to the S,
engendering reluctance because the interrogation might seem
more improper to him than to someone else. Moreover, this
procedure requires the presence of the S, whereas the standard
examination makes this unnecessary. In short, the self-inform-
ing examination encounters both subjective and practical
embarrassments. If resorted to, this method of examining is
the same as that employed with other informants.
In general, S-examinations tend to yield somewhat higher
scores, although some such scores are lower than those obtained
from independent informants. This does not necessarily reflect
the S's overestimation or disparagement of his abilities but may
simply yield more recent and perhaps more detailed or more
intimate evidence on his attainments.
The results from self -informing examinations have certain
advantages in that they provide insight on the part of the S
regarding his own competence as compared with the appraisal
of others. Such scores likewise serve somewhat as indications of
introversion or extroversion, or of tendences toward egotistic
thinking vs. self -deprecation. Self-informing consequently may
be used with therapeutic purpose or consequences because of
the insightful self-evaluation of the S and the improved
appreciation of personal-social abilities or desirabilities. This is
comparable to the insight regarding the S gained in the stand-
ard examination by independent informants, for example,
parents or parent-surrogates. Hence the method is helpful for
mental hygiene purposes or in guidance and counseling.
2. Double scoring. The standard procedure for employing
the Scale takes account of the individual as he is (or was) at the
time of the examination. It makes no direct allowances for the
influence of mental, physical or social handicaps on the success
of the performances but attempts rather to score the per-
formances ad hoc. It is obvious, however, that the evaluation
of such results should not ignore the presumptive influences
Retrospective Examining 293
of such specific handicaps as may obscure the innate capacities
of the individual.
A fairly satisfactory procedure for appraising the effects
of special handicaps is to employ "double scoring." By this is
meant the scoring of item performances (a) as these are ex-
pressed without allowance for the handicap, and then (b) as
they presumably might be performed if the handicap were not
present. This second type of scoring should be accomplished as
objectively as possible by careful interrogation on the same
principles as are employed for assigning "no opportunity"
scores. That is, the reasons for assigning the alternative score
should be as valid as may be practicable. Indeed, in one sense
the handicap poses the equivalent of the "no opportunity"
situation, the handicap being considered as the bar to opportu-
nity for expression.
These alternative scores will assist in the interpretation of
the total examination as well as of particular item perform-
ances. The difference between the total score obtained by the
method of standard scoring and the method of alternative scor-
ing may be taken as a rough measure of the influence of the
handicap on individual total social competence.
When such double scoring is employed, the influence of
particular handicaps becomes more readily apparent and sus-
ceptible to more objective evaluation. This is helpful not only
for clinical purposes but also in group studies where the in-
fluence of special handicaps is a central problem for comparative
evaluation. This is somewhat analogous to the employment of
alternative norms for restricted environments.
3. Retrospective examining. We have repeatedly suggested
the practicability of using this scale as a very helpful means
of reviewing the course of social maturation in a given subject.
We have also suggested that this may be done in either of two
ways: (a) by plotting total social scores at particular ages, or
(b) by indicating the LA's at which particular items showed
their earliest successful performance.
Retrospective total-score growth curves may be constructed
by establishing scores at more or less continuous points in the
previous history of the S. These scores need not be less precise
than standard scores taken at successive ages over a succession
of years. Many S's will be clearly recalled by particular inform-
ants, or even by the same informant, at earlier ages than the
subject's present age. Hence although the S may be no longer
living, or not of intimate recent acquaintance, the informant
294 Procedures and Scoring
may have vivid recollections of the S as of a desired former date.
Indeed some informants may have their best knowledge of the
S as of dates prior to the time of actual examination. In other
instances retrospective scores may be somewhat less thoroughly
established as between certain limits of precision. In general,
retrospective examining is possible with a surprising degree of
success. The procedure has several variations as follows :
(a) The usual procedure for retrospective examinations
is the same as that employed for standard examinations.
The informant is asked to recall the S as of a certain date in his
life history. The accuracy and vividness of recollection is best
insured by directing the preliminary interrogation toward the
general status of the S as of the time in question. This is
facilitated by encouraging the recollection of specific events of
some dramatic moment in the life of the S at that time such as
school entrance, entrance to or graduation from high school or
college, marriage, or other significant events bearing on the S
which will serve to "date" him in the mind of the informant.
With this specific orientation toward the S as of that date, the
examination proceeds in the usual manner for standard examin-
ing. The scores thus obtained may be considered as develop-
mental scores in the life history of the S, and may be used as
measurement points in the developmental history.
Such retrospective examinations may be conducted when
the S is deceased or has not been known to the informant since
the last date of intimate acquaintance. Retrospective data may
therefore be obtained from the same or different informants on
the same S at different life ages. Retrospective examinations
may also employ the S as his own informant if his memory is
assuredly accurate. These procedures supply retroactive
growth curves, or evidence of social maturity at critical periods
which may be of exceptional scientific, professional, or even
legal value.
(b) As noted earlier, another method of retrospective
examining is to record the particular ages at which specific
items of the Scale first became habitually successful. In this
procedure the progressive maturation of the S is developed in
terms of item scores rather than in terms of total scores.
Employing the standard method of interrogation, item defini-
tion and scoring, the examiner inquires as to the earliest date
(or age) at which habitual performance on given items was
clearly attained. This is analogous to the usual questions of
developmental history such as when was the first smile noted,
Retrospective Examining 295
when did he hold up his head, sit up, stand alone, walk, run,
jump; but the interrogation is more precise, the standards of
achievement more clearly defined, and the factual details more
systematically elicited.
On the early items of the Scale these "first dates" may be
established with reasonable accuracy to the approximate month
of attainment. Or the beginning and end of the emergent
period of attainment may be revealed, in which case the date
of successful emergence is assigned as the critical point. In the
later items of the Scale as age advances it may be impracticable
to assign fiixed dates, but approximate dates may be given within
limits, such as between 4-5 years, or at about 15 years, or
somewhere between 20-25 years. In general the safest practice
is to assign the mid-point of such limiting dates as the most
probable time of achievement. The same technique may be
employed for senescent retrogression or for mental deteriora-
tion and recovery.
It is apparent that this method of examining does not yield
the same precise results as in standard examining, nor does it
yield satisfactory total scores. The Scale does, however, afford
item definitions and norms for obtaining developmental history
data significantly beyond the techniques and content of examin-
ing now generally practiced. Even if all the items of the Social
Scale are not employed in this way, some of them may be used
as milestones in the developmental or involutional history and
used as specific points of reference.
This method is particularly helpful when one desires to
relate morbid events in the life history to degrees of competence
concomitantly obtaining, e.g., as in correlating suspected causes
of mental retardation with date of onset from a possibly former
normal state. The technique is specially useful in some legal
circumstances for determining the consequences of accidents
vs. previous status. This possibility of "timing" states of
competence has many assets.
(c) The Scale may be used in either of the above ways for
the evaluation of social maturation on the basis of material
already of record, as in summarizing case-history records.
From such records, assuming adequacy of data, it is practicable
to establish total scores at various points in the life history of
the S or to establish the dates of item attainment. These
methods are applicable to data inherent in biographies, novels,
drama, epic poetry, social-history records and similar sources.
296 Procedures and Scoring
In such circumstances the examiner is obliged to rely upon
the material available, and this will adventitiously determine
the life-age points at which the recorded data are interpretable.
However, in the field of biographical research it may be possible
for the investigator to determine the particular points at which
he most desires developmental data and proceed accordingly.
Obviously in the utilization of such data, the examiner may not
be able to escape the necessity of pooling information from
varied sources rather than utilizing single informants. He may
also have to infer presumptive item success from correlated
information outside the details of item scoring. Consequently,
the use of recorded evidence is less precise and calls for more
resourcefulness than is the case in standard examining. How-
ever, the examiner has recourse to the definitional elaboration
of item performance and the normal age standards of item
success.
These several uses of retrospective examining, like stand-
ard examining, assume adequacy of information. It is therefore
incumbent upon the examiner to insure reasonable scope and
reliability for the evidence elicited. Insofar as the examination
may be considered incomplete or even invalid, the evidence may
at least be set forth explicitly within the limits indicated.
4. Multiple informants. It is sometimes impracticable to
employ a single informant as required by the standard method.
It may be difficult to obtain a sufficiently informed or coopera-
tive informant (p. 269, 286). Or the examiner may be con-
strained to conduct the examination with a third person present
who may contradict or supplement the "official" informant
(as when both parents, or the informant and the S, are present) .
Or each of several informants may be inadequately informed
regarding different categories of items, and may disagree or
complement each other. The skilled examiner is usually able to
reconcile inconsistent evidence by reducing the informants'
expressions of opinion to their factual bases. One way of doing
this is to clarify the habitual (temporal) aspect of the perform-
ances or the particular situations or occasions which affect them.
The examiner should resist the temptation to introduce inform-
ation of his own as gained from observations, records, hearsay,
or personal acquaintance with the S.
In such circumstances it is inadvisable to "pool" infor-
mation from multiple informants or other sources for a single
examination. It is better practice to conduct independent
examinations for each informant, or other source of informa-
History and Literature 297
tion, and evaluate these separately either as incomplete records
(p. 557) or, if complete, in terms of the probable error of
measurement. It is, however, sometimes necessary or advisable
to pool information from multiple sources for purposes of a
single overall appraisal,
5. History and literature. History data and literary mate-
rial (p. 458, 571) are sources of information from which
approximate SA's may be systematically estimated. Sufficient
evidence may often be culled from casework records, personnel
files, biographies and autobiographies, histories and historical
novels, fiction, drama, poetry and similar means to serve as
"quasi-interviews with proxy informants." Such "examina-
tions" will usually be unavoidably sketchy and the item scores
largely inferential. Yet the over-all analysis afforded by this
procedure yields results which appear to be within rather
definite limits of plausibility for definitive appraisal.
6. Description and counseling. The standard examination
may be modified in purpose rather than procedure in order to
gain a complete description of the S or for indirect counseling.
This involves different emphasis in respect to which item scoring
and ultimate SA are less important than intimate understanding
of the S. While these results inhere in all clinical uses of the
Scale they may be specifically at issue. Hence the implications
of the item details assume importance beyond the mere routine
of assigning item scores. Indeed, in such circumstances precise
item scoring may be both more difficult and less relevant than is
typically the case. These descriptive and implicational values
are particularly helpful with handicapped or maladjusted S's..
Two illustrations may be cited.
1. A classroom demonstration of the Scale was being given before a
group of graduate students in speech and hearing impairment. The S (not
present) was a 2.7-year-old girl with congenital cerebral palsy, mother
informant, the child's physical therapy nurse present as class auditor.
Exploratory interview revealed the S to be grossly impaired in speech
and movement but apparently of better-than-average intelligence and
personality. Standard examining encountered many difficulties of scor-
ing due to physical handicaps associated with superior mental aptitudes,
which yielded partial or emergent performances and consequently equiv-
ocal item scores. The examination was then "pointed up" by intensified
interview to reveal the minute details and variable circumstances of the
child's performances with special regard for a "no opportunity" halo
resulting from physical dependency and environmental solicitude.
In the course of the examination the mother gained insight regarding
the child's physical limitations in relation to the child's mental assets and
the social regimentation. Forced item-scoring yielded an SA of 1,0 years,
and inferential double-scoring an SA of 3.2 years. Both these scores were
298 Procedures and Scoring
considered approximate rather than precise. The description of the child
was here much more significant than the formal scores. Likewise, both
mother and physical therapist perceived suggestions for management and
therapy, and concurred in similar direct suggestions from the examiner.
Moreover, the record stands as a point of reference for future improvement
due to maturation and treatment as well as an indirect estimate of intel-
lectual aptitude not susceptible to direct standard measurement in view of
the receptive and expressive physical handicaps.
2. A classroom demonstration of the Scale was b^ng given before a
group of advanced students in special education. The S was a self -inform-
ing boy of 19, a high school junior, with relative reading disability,
reported IQ 95. As the examination progressed, it was evident that the S
was increasingly embarrassed by his own candid responses which re-
vealed numerous shortcomings of performance. It was obvious that he was
accepting indirect suggestion from the content and spirit of the interview
as well as requesting and accepting direct suggestions of the order of
informal counseling. The obtained SA of 18 years was less significant
for all concerned than was the personality description and apparently
spontaneous insight gained from the examination. Even the reading
disability loomed less important than his social attitudes.
Subsequent to this examination the following unsolicited letter was
received from this S.
"I've been doing a lot of thinking since we had that talk together in
front of all those teachers. To me it didn't seem to be a test of some
kind but a talk between two persons who just met. It started me thinking
if I'm the boy my parents want me to be. I never did give much thought
to those questions before you and I had the talk. I just want you to know
that I'm doing a little changing at a time. I'm trying to do the things I
am expected to do and a little more and I feel better about everything.
Thanks a lot and I hope I get to meet you again. You don't know what
this help means to me. I enjoyed every minute of it because you treated
me so good."
7. Informal use. Apart from these methods of direct
examination, the Scale may be used informally by inexperienced
examiners, or by interested informants, or the S himself,
independently of systematic interview. This loose procedure
affords a useful though crude appraisal of the S in situations or
by persons where standard examinations are impracticable. In
such use of the Scale the items may be scored on the basis of
yes-or-no expression of opinion unsupported by detailed inter-
rogation, as a rough method of orientational evaluation of the
S. The record blank may even be placed in the hands of the
informant or of the S himself and the items merely scored plus
or minus on the basis ef the implications of the caption
formulation of items without definitional elaboration of per-
formance. A special case of such use of the Scale is the
employment of the Scale by correspondence, either with or
without the use of definitional scoring. Obviously the results
obtained from such procedures are not to be taken very
seriously for scientific purposes, but may be all that is desired
or may serve where other methods are impracticable.
8
Illustrative Examinations
The strength of a man is according to his age. — Judges VIII-21
The examining procedures, and some specific uses of this
scale, have been set forth rather explicitly in manual form in
preceding chapters. These instructions become more realistic
when amplified by illustrative examples. The following detailed
accounts of actual examinations are designed to elaborate both
theme and nuance of procedure for various types of subjects,
stages of maturity and purposes of inquiry.
Case I. Normal preschool child, male. LA 2.1, SA 2.4, SQ 114.
The examiner establishes rapport through general conver-
sation in which the nature and purpose of the examination are
briefly explained. In this case the S is being examined for pur-
poses of normative standardization of the Scale. The mother is
a cooperative and willing informant. The child is of American
descent; father is a farm supervisor; father's education high
school graduate and university short courses ; mother's occupa-
tion housewife; mother's education high school. The child has
no limiting handicaps. The examiner notes the somewhat
better than average social status of the family as well as the
parental education and paternal occupation, and gauges his
questions accordingly. These notes on the general family status
and environment are readily gained from initial conversation
showing a thoughtful interest in the child and the family.
The reader will note the use of interspersed general conver-
sation designed to maintain the informant's interest and coop-
eration and to facilitate the volunteering of gratuitous informa-
tion, and the attempt to avoid the cross-examination type of
interview. This includes occasional conversational digressions
during the interrogation not immediately relevant to the par-
ticular items of the Scale, but designed to ease the transition
from one item to another, or from one category to another.
The examiner "feels his way" toward effective questioning by
interspersing somewhat irrelevant remarks as far as the Scale
300 Illustrative Examinations
is concerned in order to keep the examination on a conversa-
tional plane. The examiner specifically avoids stilted questions
and unqualified "yes" or "no" answers. His problem is to
refrain from scoring the items until he has elicited sufficiently
detailed information to warrant clean-cut scores.
Knowing that the child is two years old, and assuming
normal development for that age in view of the preliminar3^
conjectures, the examiner (in this case) begins with the
locomotion category as follows :
E, (Examiner) I suppose Carl (the S) walks about rather freely?
I. (Informant) Oh yes, he goes everywhere by himself now,
E. Do you have to watch him very much as he gets around?
I. No, I can trust him most of the time and he seldom causes me any
trouble.
E. How long do you leave him alone to look after himself, and where does
he go without need of your watching him ?
I. Of course he goes all around the house during the day, and he plays out
in the yard when the weather is good.
E. Are you worried about his safety or getting into trouble when he does
this?
I. Of course I like to know where he is and I keep an eye on him, or I
look from time to time to see what he is doing. But he is very good about
not being meddlesome and when he is in the yard he doesn't wander off
the place. I feel that I can trust Mm, but from time to time I go to see
what he is doing. Generally I can leave him to himself for half an hour at
a time.
E. When he does this, is he by himself or in the company of other
children ?
I. Both, Sometimes he plays by himself. Other times he is with the other
children. He likes to be with others, but doesn't cause them any annoy-
ance. But of course he likes a certain amount of attention.
E. Does he go up and down stairs by himself ?
I. Yes, he goes up and down the porch steps without trouble and goes
up and down stairs alone, but when he is upstairs I feel a little more
concerned about him because he doesn't go downstairs very easily by
himself.
E. Does he need any help going up and down stairs ?
I. He walks upstairs all right holding to the banister, but coming down-
stairs he is rather timid and doesn't manage so well. Yes, he puts both
feet on each step as he goes up.
E. Does he walk downstairs?
I. No, he goes downstairs backwards on his hands and knees.
E. Does he play by himself outside the yard?
I. Oh no, I wouldn't feel safe about that. He understands that he isn't
to go beyond the sidewalk or outside our own property.
This completes the locomotion series (for this S). Items IE, 18, 29,
and 32 are scored plus, while items 45 and 53 are scored minus. Items
61 and above are obviously inapplicable.
E. I suppose he does a good many things for himself now?
Normal Preschool Child 301
I. Oh yes, I don't have to give him much attention in ordinary matters.
E. (Shifting to the general self-help category.) Does he still use a baby
carriage when he goes out?
I. No, we put it away a few months ago. I take him for short walks
either holding his hand or having him walk beside me. When we go any
distance we use the car. If I am out shopping he manages very nicely
without being carried.
E. Does he help himself in little ways, or do you have to look after him?
I. Well, around the house he manages very well, I'm afraid I don't
understand quite what you mean.
E. I mean, do you have to open the door for him when he wants to go out,
or pick up his things for him, or watch him frequently in regard to
ordinary dangers such as playing with matches or teasing the cat, or
breaking things ?
I. Oh I see! No, he looks after himself quite well. If the door is closed he
can get on a chair to turn the knob and can then open the door unless it
should stick. He climbs up on things to get what he wants and he doesn't
worry me about the things he's not supposed to touch. He carries his play-
things around in a little wagon. We don't have a cat, but he plays with
the neighbor's dog without any fear, keeps out of the street, and is
generally quite careful. In fact if anything, he is over-cautious and even a
little bit afraid in some ways. Around the house he uses a kindergarten
scissors to make paper cut-outs and he uses a knife without hurting him-
self. He doesn't like strangers and won't have anything to do with them.
E. Do you take him to the toilet, or does he go by himself?
I, Most of the time he lets me know when he wants to go to the toilet,
but now and then when he waits too long I ask him, to avoid accidents.
E. He doesn't go to the toilet by himself then ?
I. Oh no, I have to help him.
E. Does he still wear a napkin?
I. No, not for some time.
E. Does he sometimes wet himself ?
I. No, not during the daytime, and he does wear a napkin at night, but I
can give that up now because he really no longer needs to.
In this category Items 2, 3, 5, 6, 8, 9, 13, and 15 are scored plus on the
basis of information already obtained. Items 23 and 41 are scored plus.
Item 26 plus. Item 35 plus-minus as an emergent item (being successfully
performed much of the time but not habitually). Item 51 is scored minus.
Item 66 is obviously inapplicable.
E. (Taking up self-help eating.) I suppose you've stopped nursing him?
I. Yes, about a year ago. And he has given up his bottle too.
E. What does he do for himself at the table ?
I. Well, he uses a fork now and insists on having it for eating vegetables
because he lik€s to eat like his older brother.
E. Does he have any difficulty using a fork for eating meat, or does he
spill very much food?
I. He doesn't have meat very often, and of course I cut it for him in small
pieces and he has no trouble using a fork that way. Of course, he does
spill a little bit and he is kind of awkward, and sometimes when he's in a
hurry or tired he uses a spoon instead of a fork, but most of the time he
has no trouble.
E. How long has he been using a fork successfully ?
I. Well, there was quite a time when he wanted to use it, but he made such
302 Illustrative Examinations
a mess that I had to take it away from him, but for the last six weeks or
so he has been getting along very nicely.
E. Does he also use a knife at the table?
I. No, that is, not very well. He is pretty independent and wants to
spread his own bread, but this is too much for him, and anyway I'd rather
do it for him because otherwise I have to watch him all the time.
E. He doesn't use a knife very well then ?
I. No, I'm afraid not. Do you think he should? Sometimes he tries to cut
with a knife and then there's trouble.
E. Do you have difficulty keeping him from eating things that might be
harmful ?
I. No, he's pretty careful about that. In fact, we think he's pretty fussy.
He spits out things that he doesn't like, and if he sometimes puts some-
thing in his mouth that isn't good to eat, he gets rid of it pretty quickly.
E. Does he use good judgment in eating things that have peelings on
them?
I. Well, I think he could do that, but he hasn't had much chance because
I'd rather do that for him. Lately he has begun to peel a banana when
he has one, but sometimes I even have to help him with that. If we have
salt water taffy, I have to take the paper off for him because I'm not sure
that he would take it all off and I'm afraid he might eat some of it.
Sometimes the other children give him peanuts, but I have to watch to
see that he takes the shells off, and really it's easier to do this for him.
E. Is he careful about chewing his food ?
I. Yes, he has been taught to eat slowly and to chew his food before
swallowing, and unless he is in a hurry to get away from the table we
don't have any trouble about that. As I said before, he's careful about
eating and although he still wears a bib at meal time, he can use the
same one for several meals before changing it. At first I used to have to
wash his face after each meal, but now all I have to do is to wipe his mouth
when the meal is over.
E. Does he use a glass all right at the table ?
I. Yes, and also a cup. In fact, he can get a drink for himself away from
the table and has been doing this for a couple of months. When he wants
a drink he gets a glass from the shelf by climbing on a chair and goes to
the kitchen faucet. In fact, if he asks me for a drink, I generally tell
him that he's old enough to get a drink by himself now.
In this category Items 11, 16, 20, 25, 28, 30, 38, and 39 are all scored
plus. Item 38 is slightly dubious, but may be scored full plus rather than
plus-minus. Items 33, 62, and 67 are scored minus and Item 75 is therefore
automatically minus.
E. How about dressing himself ? How much can he do for himself or what
does he do for himself in that way?
I. Well, I'm afraid he isn't so good about that, or maybe I don't give him
much chance. You know how a mother hates to have her boy grow up too
fast! I like to do things for him, and anyway, with the other children I
haven't the time to let him do these things for himself. It's so much
easier to do it for him.
E. Does he help at all in dressing himself, or even in undressing ?
I. Well, he's always wanting to take off his own shoes and stockings when
he goes to bed or when I change his clothes, but I usually do this for him,
and he doesn't have much chance. I'm afraid I spoil him a little bit that
way.
E. He doesn't take off his outer clothes either ?
Normal Preschool Child 303
I. No, I have to take off all his clothes for him, but I think he could do
more if I'd let him, and of course he doesn't put on any of his clothes
although he's always wanting to.
E. You do eversrthing for him then?
I. Yes, you know how it is with a mother!
E. How about washing himself ?
I. Well, he tries to wash his hands every now and then, but he makes a
pretty bad job of it and gets the towel so dirty when he dries them that I
find It much easier to do this myself.
E. He doesn't really even dry his own hands then?
I. No, he just dabs at them and I have to finish the job.
E. He doesn't wash his face either?
I. No, I'm afraid that would be expecting too much. He doesn't even like
it when I wash his face for him.
The items in this category are all minus. Items 21, 37, 40, 42, 47, 50,
52, are specifically failed, and the succeeding items are under the circum-
stances inapplicable or automatically minus. Note that this category
shows special retardation in maturity and that the mother apologizes for
the child's inadequacy on the basis of her own convenience or solicitude.
E. (Considering the occupation category.) You told me a while back that
Car] uses the scissors when playing in the house. Can you tell me some of
the other things he does in his play, or in keeping himself occupied?
I. Well, he has always been an active boy and is always doing something.
We always thought he was a little bit ahead of other children and quite
able to help himself in these ways
E. Tell me some of the things he does.
I. Well, he likes to use colored crayons and even tries to draw with them.
He tells us what the drawings are, but mostly they're just marks. Then
he carries things around the house, and for a half hour or so at a time
will put his toys in all kinds of imaginary arrangements. He plajrs with
blocks, pushes his wagon around, and looks after himself very well without
being told what to do. He likes to work with the scissors cutting paper.
He can follow a line fairly well in making cut-outs but doesn't make very
good patterns. Sometimes I let him have my sewing scissors and an old
piece of cloth when I am with him.
E. Does he help around the house in little ways ?
I. Well, I can ask him to go get things for me or put things away and he
is very good about this if I don't ask for too much. In fact, he likes to
help me and has been doing this for some time.
E. Does he do anything more than this ?
I. Well, now and then he helps to put things on the table, but I have to
tell him what to do, and he doesn't stay at it very long. He's all right as
long as I tell him one thing at a time. Of course I can't rely on him for
anything very important or that requires much persistence.
E. Does he play with a wagon or things like that?
T. He pulls a wagon around the yard and he uses a kiddy-car in the
house, but I don't trust him that way outside the yard or off the sidewalk
in front of the house. I'd be afraid to let him go very far because be
might hurt himself.
E. Does he use tools at all ?
I. Besides the scissors he usies my kitchen spoons and pans, but just to
play with. Of course he isn't old enough to use a hammer or tools like that.
In this category Items 7, 19, 2^, 24, 36 and 43 are scored plus. Items
304 Illustrative Examinations
48, 55, 57, and 71 are scored minus. The other items in this category are
either automatically minus or not applicable.
E. I ^ther from what you've told me that Carl has no difficulty in
talking?
I. Well, he does pretty well, but we think he's a little slow that way.
Maybe we're expecting too much because his older brother did so much
better than he at the same age.
E. Does he understand pretty well what you say to him?
I. Oh yes, he understands everything I say. As I told you, I can send him
to get things for me or to put things away, and I have told you how he
helps me if I tell him what to do.
E. Does he understand pretty well what you say to him?
L He says a lot of words and can name the things be wants, but he doesn't
talk very distinctly and other people don't understand him very well. It
isn't so much that he can't talk, but he doesn't talk very clearly.
E. Does he talk connectedly? I mean, does he tell you very much about
what he wants or what happens to him?
I. Well, not very well. He uses a few sentences but not very many and not
very often, like "See dog." or "Want my ball." His sentences very seldom
have a subject. Still we understand most of the time what he is trying to
say. Of course, he doesn't talk very connectedly or say very much that
we can understand except for these little sentences. When he tries to tell
us anything he has to be prompted or very much encouraged. We think he
would talk more if we could understand him better.
E. Does he do any writing?
I. No. He just makes marks with a pencil.
Communication items 1, 10, 17, 31 are scored plus. Item 34 is scored
plus-minus as an emergent performance, but this is a little generous.
Items 44, 58 and above in the communication category are scored minus
or are inapplicable.
Skipping the self-direction items as inapplicable the examiner
proceeds to the socialization category.
E. You told me that Carl plays with other children. What do they do?
I. Well, he gets along very nicely with other children. Of course they
are older than he is and so he pla3rs mostly by himself, even if the other
children are around.
E. What games does he play with the other children?
I. Well, he doesn't really play games with them very much. He plays
more by himself. He likes to watch the other children and they play
pretend games. Sometimes he plays **ring-around-the-rosy" or "lude-
and-seek" and I notice lately that he does this much more often than he
used to.
E. Does he try to entertain the other children or does he "perform"
when you have visitors ?
I. No, he's pretty shy and there isn't very much he can do that way,
although he's quite active in his own play.
Items 4, 14 and 27 are scored pins. Item 46 is scored plus-minns.
Items 49 and above are minus or inapplicable.
The examination is terminated with complimentary com-
ments on Carl's growth and behavior and expressions of appre-
ciation for the mother's cooperation.
Superior Adult 305
In summary, all items are plus in the first year. Items 21
and 33 are minus, and Item 34 plus-minus, in the second year.
In the third year Items 36, 38, 39, 41, 43 are plus, 35 plus-
minus, and the others minus. In the fourth year (year III-IV)
Item 46 is plus-minus, and the other items are minus. Totaling
these scores, all items are plus to Item 20 inclusive, which is
therefore the basal score. There are 16 full pluses and 3
half-credits in addition to the first 20 items, or 17.5 additional
points which, added to the basal score of 20, yield a total score
of 37.5. Converting this total score to an SA score by the
method described on page 289, we observe that 34 points equals
2.0, and that the remaining 3.5 points expressed as a fraction
of the 10 points included in year II-III equals .35 years, which
added to 2.0 equals 2.35 or 2.4. Or the SA may be obtained
directly from the conversion table (Table A, p. 290) . SA 2.4
divided by LA 2.1 yields SQ 114.
The statistical significance of this result in terms of
deviation from the mean is most readily calculated for the SQ.
Reference to Table 5 (p. 376) shows that the mean SQ for LA
2-3 is 112, SD 17. This S is therefore 2 points, or .12 SD, above
the mean for his age. (Other methods of calculating position
scores are considered in Chapter 9) . For additional interpreta-
tion we may note that this S comes from a somewhat superior
family for social status and is without noteworthy handicap.
In the absence of psychometric data and personality evaluation
(other than apparent from the Social Scale itself) further spec-
ulation is not warranted. Item evaluation shows relative retar-
dation in the self-help dressing category. Otherwise the S's
performances are well-rounded.
In this examination we note immediately the facility with
which the examination proceeds. We are dealing here with an
informant who readily comprehends the questions and volun-
teers helpful information. She is eager to tell of the child's
successes and her very apologies for his lack of performance
are ingenuously informing.
Case II. Superio7- adult male. LA 65, Sil 30-t-, SQ 120+,
We have elsewhere noted the difficulties of formulating
the adult items and that in designing the upper reaches of the
Scale we were guided by analyzing the social performances of a
number of acknowledgedly superior adults. Dr. J. is one of
these. He is the director of a well-known institution for the
care of mentally subnormal children and has devoted his life to
306 Illustrative Examinations
the promotion of public v/elfare. His present age is 65 years,
and the examination is made as of that age. While there has
been some abatement in recent years as to the vigor of his
activities, there has been no reduction in the level of his social
performances, and from the point of view of the Scale he may
still be considered as at his prime social competence. In his
case, adult prime was reached certainly before 40 and probably
before 35 years of age.
This period of prime attainment could readily be established
through retrospective examining. It is relevant to note that the
period of optimum attainment for superior talent is reached at
LA 30-40, with the mean at about 33-35 years.* By that age
the promise of productive prime is well assured for the average
of superior adults. This does not of course mean all such adults
but only half of them (the mean approximating the mid-point
of the distribution). In some instances optimum work is done
after LA 50 or, with decreasing incidence, as late as LA 80.
We might generalize the principle that the major impetus to
productive effort is well set before LA 40 and that productivity
continues on the momentum from this impetus, but with nega-
tive acceleration. This deceleration is ordinarily not noticeable
before LA 50 but is usually apparent by LA 60. Thereafter
the decline in imaginative effort becomes increasingly obvious
with progressive loss of vision, venturesomeness and vigor.
The relatively new science of gerontology, and its applica-
tions in geriatrics and gerontotherapy, has already assembled
a large body of systematic material and is earnestly engaged in
varied aspects of further research.
The informant in this case is a personal friend and pro-
fessional associate, intimately acquainted with the S for a
period of 20 years and closely contacted with his activities. In
orienting the examination, the examiner learns that the S is of
Canadian birth, English descent, whose life since childhood
has been spent in the United States. His scholastic education
included three years' study of medicine, but the extent of his
education is by no means limited to formal instruction. On the
contrary, his self-education has continued throughout his life
and his scholastic and intellectual attainments might well be
envied by the best of scholars. Most of his life has been spent
in the field of institutional administration ; since 30 years of age
he has been the superintendent, and later the director, of an
*Cf. Harvey C. Lehman. "Intellectual" versus "physical" peak
performance: the age factor. Scientific Monthly, 61. July, 1945 t)p, 127-137.
Superior Adult 307
institution which has attained international recognition. The
examiner approaches the examination with this information
which is readily elaborated as the examination proceeds.
E. You've known "Prof." J. for some time, and are pretty well acquainted
with him, are you not?
I. Yes, I've known him in various capacities for over 20 years and have
been closely associated with him. Indeed, he has been one of my "heroes"
and I have observed his achievements and his manner of work in the
hope that I might profit from these observations myself,
E. (Beginning naturally with the occupation category.) Well, what is
the nature of his work?
I. His immediate position is that of director of a semi-private institution
for the care of mentally subnormal children with an inmate population
of about five hundred. But this position, important as it is, serves only
as a base of operations, for he is actively engaged in many fields of
humanitarian, scientific and business interests.
E. Do you consider him a man of recognized professional attainment?
I. Oh, unquestionably! In fact, he is known internationally for the
exceptionally high standard of his work. He is an outstanding leader in
his field, twice president of the national association representing that
field. He is the author of books and articles, not only in this field but in
related subjects. He is a man of unusual versatility and wide interests.
E. You say he is the managing director of a fairly large institution?
I. Yes, and has been so successfully for 35 years.
E. How large is the staff of this institution for which he is responsible?
I. The employed personnel exceeds 175 persons.
E. And he organizes and directs the work of this group?
I. Yes, and he is well known for the originality and system with which
he does his work. He is specially keen in the development and application
of the principles and methods of scientific management. As the executive
head of the institution he is responsible for safeguarding the financial
income and budget of that institution.
E. And would you say that he is himself responsible for increasing the
success of the institution by his own effort, or that this has been somewhat
the result of favorable circumstances ?
I. Dr. J. is a man of extraordinary initiative and resourcefulness and it
is largely due to his creative efforts that his School has grown from a
relatively small and little known place to its present size and its present
international reputation. He has been a dominant factor in these develop-
ments, and has attained them against serious odds. His readiness to
depart from accepted practice is one of his outstanding characteristics.
E. And is he completely absorbed in his work, or does he take time out
to play now and then, and if so, what does he do?
I. In spite of his wide responsibilities and interests, he manages to find
time for profitable recreation. He reads a great deal in subjects outside
his immediate field. He is fond of outdoors, especially fishing, travels
a good deal both for pleasure and profit, has an immense capacity for
enjoying his experiences, and has no time at all for idling except as this
is itself recreational. He holds a longstanding membership in an out-
of-state hunting and fishing club and pursues numerous intellectual
hobbies as well. At present his special interest runs to archaeology and
he has collected quite a number of relics of this sort.
Items 106, 107, 108, 111, 113, 114, and 116 are obviously plus, since
308 Illustrative Examinations
the items are all more than satisfied by the S's performances.
E. (Checking the s€lf -direction items.) In his capacity as managing
director, I suppose he has large responsibilities for the welfare of others ?
I. Obviously. Aside from his personal family responsibilities (he has
four children) and those of the institution, he voluntarily gives much
help to many individual friends and employees and shows concern for
their welfare.
E. And I suppose his position carries some financial responsibility?
I. Yes, he approves all major purchases of the institution and is its
responsible financial head. This work involves not only ordinary purchases,
but also the large construction projects which he initiates and ultimately
approves. Of course, he also approves the payroll of the institution.
These expenditures run to six figures.
E. And would you say that he manages his own financial affairs as well
as those of the institution?
I.^ Well, as to that, I am not so well informed, but I know he pays his
bills and lives rather prudently, where most persons might well be
extravagant.
E. And what is he doing to meet the rainy days ?
I. I understand that he carries extensive life insurance and has important
investments which are carefully safeguarded. Also I believe he has
provided well for his family. While he has had some financial business
losses, his principal resources are well invested. Incidentally he is one
of our bank directors and vice-president of the Board.
Items 100, 101, 102, 105 and 112 are obviously plus, and more than
satisfied.
E. (Introducing the socialization category.) You have said that Dr. J.
has made important contributions to social welfare. What are some of
these contributions?
I. Well, there is hardly any local movement for social betterment in which
he doesn't have some large share. He is active in the support of good
government, church work, the local schools, the local Grange, YMCA,
Boy Scouts; in fact there is hardly anything that goes on locally in which
he doesn't have some large and disinterested share.
E. Does this extend outside his local contacts?
I. Yes, he not only supports, but actually stimulates, movements for
civic betterment, and has done so for many years. His professional
activities are far-flung. While not personally ambitious, he does not
hesitate to take an active share in these movements.
E. Can you be a little more specific?
I. Well, for many years he has been a recognized leader in his own
community. He recently received a public award as our most outstanding
local citizen. He is consulted on practically all matters of local public
concern, as for example, in the appointments of important officials, in
the selection of candidates for public positions. As I said before, he is
a member of the Board of Directors of our local bank. He has been a
Mason for many years, belongs to numerous professional and scientific
national organizations and has had a wide influence in both state and
national public welfare movements. At the close of World War I he
participated in the morale work in the Army and had an active part in
the child welfare program in Serbia for which he was decorated by
Crown Prince Alexander.
E. And would you say that some of these activities have risen above
Constitutionally Inferior Adult 309
immediate necessities? By that I mean, how far has this influence been
felt? What universal recognition has it had? What implications for a
better world tomorrow?
I. Well, he is listed in Who's Who, and as I have said, has been twice
president of a major national association, has held numerous important
appointments of professional or consulting nature in his state and in
national relations. He was awarded an honorary degree at Princeton
and another at Rutgers. He has been cited on several occasions for his
contributions to the improvement of agriculture, education, public welfare
administration. He is well-known for his vigorous promotion of scientific
research. You can see it's a long list, but if you want more detail
Items 103, 104, 109, 110, 115 and 117 are obviously plus, and more
than completely satisfied.
From this information it is clear that, diif icult as the adult
items may seem to be from the point of view of performance,
definition, and scoring, their application is relatively simple
when the S is obviously capable. There is no question that every
item of the Scale is generously satisfied by this S whose social
competence reaches beyond the limits of the Scale and leaves
much to be measured that the Scale does not provide for. Note
that three categories of the Scale, self-help, locomotion, and
communication, were omitted from the examination as being
entirely comprehended in the other categories by implication
or in fact by reason of the level of attainment in the three
categories employed and in the absence of special handicaps.
The total score in this case is 117. This score is beyond
the highest score obtained in the normative standardization
sample (112 points) and represents the Scale's maximum limit
of measurement. The extrapolated SA is 30+ years (maximum
SA score) and the corresponding SQ is 1204- (maximum assign-
able adult SQ).
Case III. Constitutionally inferior institutionalized adult
girl LA 26, SA 14.1, SQ 56.
The preceding examinations illustrate the procedure with
normal subjects at both ends of the Scale. We now consider the
intermediate range with variously handicapped subjects and
for different types of examining and scoring.
The present S reveals serious social deficiency combined
with psychometrically average intelligence without noteworthy
handicaps other than the developmental retardation in social
maturation. The examination illustrates environmental limita-
tion and facilitation in development and the use of "F" and
"NO" scores. The case history reveals the stability of the total
310 Illustrative Examinations
scores obtained over a period of ten years by different examin-
ers employing various informants. These standard scores are
compared with retrospective scores based on recorded informa-
tion from the life history at various dates. The categorical
analysis of item performances indicates relative proficiency and
deficiency in different phases of social competence. The exami-
Qation is illuminated by a preliminary overall clinical summary
of the life history and some comment on the problem of
differential diagnosis. This S has been permanently institu-
tionalized on a life provision plan in a residential school for the
mentally deficient and has so spent the past seventeen of her
thirty-five years (illustrative examination as of LA 26).
We are immediately confronted with the difficult problem of
mental diagnosis and the discrepancies between clinical impres-
sion and objective measurement. This difficulty is increased
by the uncertainties of both subjective and objective criteria
for determining the upper limits of mental deficiency vs. consti-
tutional inferiority (constitutional inadequacy, constitutional
defectiveness).
The systematic diagnosis of mental deficiency requires evidence
of six definitional criteria, namely (1) social incompetence,
due to (2) intellectual deficiency, (3) existing from birth or
an early age, (4) which obtains at maturity, (5) is essentially
incurable, and (6) is of constitutional origin. In short, mental
deficiency is defined as a social insufficiency ascribable to
developmental retardation in the field of intelligence due to
native lack or permanent modification of normal constitutional
potential prior to maturity.
Constitutional inferiority resembles mental deficiency in its
major indications as a developmental inadequacy, but relates
the constitutional basis to unresolved organic and personality
factors other than intelligence. The condition is essentially
one of inadequate personality rather than inadequate intelli-
gence. Yet the personality factors are by no means clear. The
major implications of the personality deviation are conative
weakness, limited insight and judgment in spite of fair "intelli-
gence," conduct disorders, and particularly deficiency in social
achievement or adjustment. The skillful use of projective
techniques materially clarifies the diagnostic distinction.
These observations are relevant to the present case study as
illustrating the comparative merits of the Social Scale vs.
psychometric measures when taken in relation to the total
individuality of the S under consideration.
Natalie was born in New England, of English descent, but
grew up in a city of moderate size in the South. Her mother
Constitutionally Inferior Adult 311
was twenty-five years old at the birth of the child ; her father
was twenty-nine. The family is of superior financial and social-
economic status, the father an accountant and builder,
Natalie was the first-born of three daughters. The two
sisters are living and reported as entirely normal. The birth
history as reported was uneventful, but the details are some-
what meager. There are no indications of prenatal complica-
tions and the description of the birth reports nothing unusual
in the birth process. However, there is a statement of injury
to the skull at birth, the nature and cause of which could not
at this time be elicited. She was born at full term with normal
labor.
Early developmental history indicates delay in walking (at
2 years) and talking (at "less than 3 years"). These events
suggest the likelihood of early neurological damage, probably of
paranatal intracranial origin. This probability is increased by
the absence of unfavorable family history and the absence of
serious illness antedating the onset of developmental retarda-
tion. The medical history available is negative except for
certain childhood diseases without noteworthy consequences.
The history relates "glandular fever" at 6 years, and severe
pneumonia at about 17 years of age. These later illnesses,
however, postdate the onset of retardation.
Developmental retardation was noted from early infancy.
She was delayed in motor development and was "different from
other children." Following the onset of speech she had difficulty
in pronouncing words and seemed otherwise backward in
development. (Given adequate informants this developmental
retardation could be more clearly described and more accurately
dated by retrospective Social Scale examining.)
She attended a small "porch school" and was assisted by a
tutor at home. She entered public school in the fourth grade
at about ten years of age and was promoted regularly year by
year with favorable aptitude for scholastic work. She gradu-
ated from grammar school and entered a high school academy.
But at this time it was noticed that she had reached the limit
of her scholastic attainment. She was removed from school
because of illness and subsequently was placed in a private
school for mentally exceptional pupils. After three months at
this school she left because of illness, and the following year
was placed in another school for mentally deficient children and
adults where she has spent her subsequent years in continuous
j-esidence except for brief visits at her home.
312 Illustrative Examinations
In spite of various signs of retarded development, Natalie's
disposition and educational progress were generally favorable,.
However, she is described as always being a misfit with children
and as showing "lack of social orientation." She tended to
mingle with her social inferiors and with younger children and
showed generally poor social judgment. There was a tendency
toward sexual preoccupation and untrustworthiness. These
sexual tendencies were the immediate social cause for institu-
tional placement plus the desire for continued training in social
adaptation.
At the time of entering high school she lived with her
maternal uncle and his five children in order to extend and
improve her social relations. It was in this situation that her
social irresponsibility became conspicuous and that it became
evident she had reached her limit of academic achievement.
During the intervening years between high school and institu-
tional placement the sexual tendencies caused grave concern,
but so far as the record shows did not eventuate in sexual
promiscuity. She did however become rather difficult to manage
because of her social aggressiveness and somewhat obtrusive
personality coupled with an unwarrantedly high opinion of her
abilities. Because of verbal superiority she attained relatively
exceptional though somewhat shallow scholastic success. At 17
yeats of age she showed excellent command of language and a
fairly wide range of general information. However, insight
was limited, judgment poor, and behavior socially imprudent.
At the time of admission to the institution where she now
resides, Natalie received extensive psychological study and this
has been continued over the intervening years. Binet mental
age (1916 Stanford-Binet) at this time (LA 18.5 years) was
12.9 years, IQ 91 (14-year basis), which placed her at the lower
quartile of the normative standardization for this test. Various
other tests of literacy, educational achievement and literate
intelligence (Ohio Literacy, Stanford, Pressey X-0) exceeded
this result with scores at median or above performance. A
standard test of non-verbal abstract intelligence (Myers) like-
wise yielded a score above the normative median. This was
confirmed by performance test (Witmer) score. Low scores
were obtained on the Porteus Maze (9.5 years), and on the
Healy PC #2 (9.0 years). Social competence at this time could
not be measured for lack of suitable measuring devices other
than rating scales and descriptive score cards. But the history
indicated social inadequacy coupled with amenable social
adjustment under supervision.
Constitutionally Inferior Adult 313
In general these favorable scores have been sustained by
repeated examinations (including Morgan, Alpha, Monroe, Otis,
Goodenough) in the subsequent years. Successive Binet scores
hovered about 13 years (12.7 to 13.3 years) with literate-verbal
scores and non-verbal abstract scores at average adult level
(Porteus score advanced to 12.5 years). Educational attain-
ment has been reasonably well sustained but without much
practical capitalization.
These test results, coupled with clinical observations
revealed excellent verbal memory, superficial reasoning ability,
limited insight, poor judgment, fairly good range of general
information. Her social behavior has been characterized by
obtrusive personality and imprudent conduct but amenable
disposition. These observations are best confirmed by the
Forteus Maze test.
Since 1935 Natalie has been repeatedly examined with the
Vineland Social Maturity Scale. These results have centered
about SA 14 years (13.5 - 15.3) with a maximum score of 16.0
years on self -informing administration.
The extended clinical study of this girl over a period of
LA 18 to LA 35 years, coupled with evidence from institutional
experience and adjustment, reveals a consistent picture of
serious subnormality in social competence associated with sub-
stantially average intelligence as measured by standard psycho-
metric tests. The clinical observations and the history reveal
no evidence of mental deterioration or disorder, and no compli-
cating handicaps aside from the social incompetence itself. The
only limiting circumstance is the specific supervision required
with reference to sexual proclivities, but these were not serious-
ly unusual or abnormal. The later history does reveal a succes-
sion of somatic complaints, such as difficult menstruation which
ultimately yielded to radium treatment, physical discomfort
which yielded to appendectomy, mild behavioral instability
which improved following dental extractions, and some appar-
ently gonadal involvement which has subsided with advancing
years.
In view of the favorable degree and quality of intelligence
a diagnosis of mental deficiency seems unwarranted. But in
view of the social inadequacy and apparently permanent arrest
in social development at the adolescent level the most tenable
diagnosis is one of constitutional inferiority. The specific
reasons for this inferiority are not clearly elicited, but the
social inadequacy itself is clearly established in fact both by the
314 ILLUSTEATIVE EXAMINATIONS
history of social achievement and the direct measuremeait of
social competence by the Social Maturity Scale.
There is no clear etiology for Natalie's condition other
than that of possible intracranial birth lesion. This presumption
is increased by motor awkwardness (generalized incoordina-
tion) evident from physical education instruction, occupational
experience and clinical observation. These inferences are sup-
ported by recent tests of motor facility (Heath rail walking,
e.g.). In more recent terminology she would be described as
the organically impaired crystallized type with language facility
and limited concept formation, or Heath's Y-3 type.* The
psychometric data may reflect a somewhat spurious measure-
ment of intelligence since the test scores are above the level
of practical function, an observation which is common to the
Y-3 type.
In undertaking the direct examination, the examiner has
access to the above case history information but may prefer
to conduct the examination unprejudiced by this knowledge.
In the latter case the examiner would find it necessary as a
preliminary to the examination to orient himself in respect to
some of the above information which presumably would be at
the informant's command.
In either case the examiner notes that the S has been a
resident pupil of a training school for mentally deficient chil-
dren and adults since late adolescence (LA 18 years). He
observes that she has had excellent opportunity at home, a
favorable public school education including first-year high
school, optimum institutional care (including cottage, school
and occupational training), intermittent home visits, corrective
medical attention, and favorable personality stimulation. These
training opportunities have included a wide variety of specific
pursuits such as physical education, dramatic instruction, hand-
work, domestic arts and science, music. Nevertheless she has
not succeeded socially at any point in her life without embar-
rassment to her family or without careful supervision. And
she is still incapable of self-support, self-management, and
self-direction without serious apprehension regarding the
hazards involved with reference to her ability to live prudently
or to become economically independent. There is at present
little reason to suppose that if she were returned to her family
or to some other social scene that she would be able to succeed
*Cf. S. Roy Heath, Jr, A mental pattern found in motor deviates.
Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 41, April, 1946, pp. 223-225.
Constitutionally Inferior Adult 315
independently of continuous supervision and assistance. Hence
the examiner is on guard in this case not to be misled by the
evidence from psychometric measurement revealing average
level of intelligence. The examiner is also on guard in employing
the Scale for use of "F" scores in the home environment and
"NO" scores at the institution.
, The examination here presented was conducted at LA 26
years (i.e. nine years prior to the latest records in this history)
through the attendant at the cottage where Natalie resides at
the institution. This attendant had been in close contact with
Natalie for a number of years and was fairly well acquainted
with the family and the home to which Natalie returns for
occasional visits and vacations. Since Natalie is both loquacious
and well informed, the attendant knew a good deal of Natalie's
background from conversations with her, especially following
her return from home visits. The student will note that in
spite of the above historj^ the examination is based entirely on
the information obtained from this cottage attendant as inform-
ant, and that even the "F" scores and the "NO" scores are
based on this informant's evidence. The student will also
notice that Natalie has been examined on a self-informing basis,
that she might be examined by using her parents as informants,
that information of record might be resorted to (retrospective
biographical procedure) but that it is inadvisable to pool these
various sources of information in a single examination. Each
such examination should rather be conducted independently.
The results of several such examinations might be compared
but should not be pooled for a single score.
Disregarding the above summary, the examiner interviews
the cottage attendant as follows :
E. You've known Natalie for some time and are well acquainted with her?
L Yes, she has been in this cottage under my supervision for the past
three years, and in this capacity I am reasonably familiar with her life
in the institution. I have also met her parents and of course Natalie
talks to me a great deal about her life at home.
E. (Feeling his way.) Do you know what led up to her coming to this
institution ?
I. I understand she has been here for 8 years, and before that she spent
four months at a private school in Pennsylvania. Her parents have told
me that although she got along all right at school she was always a
rather peculiar girl. It seems that she was pretty fond of the boys, and
that she didn't show very good judgment in what she did at home. Her
parents felt that she was not responsible, didn't get along well with girls
of her own age, had to be watched continually, and all together it wais
too much responsibility for them. Her mother told me that her interest
in boys and men was the final straw, but that in many other ways
Natalie could not be trusted to look after herself.
316 Illustrative Examinations
E These sexual inclinations, then, were not the only reason for her
commitment ?
I. Oh no, this was only the immediate reason. As I have seen Natalie I
can understand how impossible it would be to have her at home unless
she was continually looked after.
E„ (Moving into self -direction category.) I understand that here at the
mstitution where we are responsible for looking after her, she is kept
under fairly close supervision?
1. Yes, of course. Like all the other girls we have to know where they
are all the time. Otherwise she might run off or get into trouble with
any man she might meet and we would be held responsible.
E. I suppose this means that she is not left to look after herself for
very long at a time, or to go out alone during the day, or to go out at
night without someone being with her?
L Yes, of course. She is able to look after herself as far as keeping
occupied is concerned, but I wouldn't want to trust her alone very long
because she really is so irresponsible. She doesn't stay at things or do
them well when left to herself very long, and she might even "handle"
some of the other girls or teach them bad habits, although I haven't seen
much of this of late. And of course she isn't permitted to go out either
during the day or night unless some responsible woman employee is
with her.
E. Do you think she could do any of these things if it were not for the
lules of the institution; I mean, would you be willing to trust her to go
out nights by herself or during the daytime, or would you be willing to
leave her alone or to look after other children, either boys or girls
younger than herself for any length of time?
I. Well, I wouldn't want to be responsible for her if she went out nights
or during the daytime, for I am quite sure she would be likely to get
into trouble. I think she could find her way around familiar places, but
she's pretty heedless and impulsive and, no, I wouldn't feel comfortable
about it. As I told you, I wouldn't even feel very good about leaving her
alone for longer than half-an-hour by herself unless I knew where she
was and what she was doing. Even then I would want to check up on
her from time to time. I certainly wouldn't be willing to leave her with
younger boys, and wouldn't feel very safe even with younger girls.
E. Do you know whether she did these things at home ?
I. Well, her parents have told me that they never felt really safe to
leave Natalie at home alone because they didn't know who might come
to the house or what she might do. They say she was always rather
flighty and even after she grew up they didn't feel comfortable about her
being alone. I know the neighbors never left the children with her.
However, she did for a time go to church alone and go downtown on
errands, but she took such unreasonably long time about these things
that after a while the family never allowed her to go out alone during the
daytime, and certainly not at night!
E. (Taking up locomotion items because of their immediate relation to
these aspects of self -direction.) Does she go to town from the institution
by herself, or is she allowed to go anywhere by herself off the grounds ?
I. No, she never goes off the grounds unless she is attended by some woman
employee. In fact, she isn't even permitted to go about the grounds except
from this cottage to the next, unaccompanied.
E. Did she do any of these things at home?
I. Natalie tells me that when she was at home attending high school she
went to school by herself, but usually other pupils went with her. For
a while she went to church alone as I told you, and now and then went
to town on errands by herself, but finally she wasn't permitted to do this
Constitutionally Inferior Adult 317
because the parents were always worried about her while she was away.
E, When she visits at home now, does she go alone?
I. No. When she goes from here to her home for visits, either sonie
relative comes for her, or if that is impossible, she goes by train in
charge of the conductor. We see her safely into the Pullman car at
Philadelphia and the conductor is carefully instructed to look after her
until she reaches her home where she is always met by some relative
when the train comes in. Her parents don't feel any too good about
this, and so they almost always come and get her and bring her back.
E. (Returning to the self -direction items.) You said she isn't really
responsible for her own affairs?
I. No. She shows very poor judgment in what she does, is quite impulsive,
and has very little idea of the consequences of what she does. She is a
well-behaved girl, but of course here she is under supervision most of the
time and I feel that she certainly could not be trusted to look after herself.
E. How about the use of money? Does she have any spending money,
and what does she do with it?
I. Of course you know that in the institution the children do not have
any money. Natalie's parents send her two dollars a month for spending
money and this is put in Store for her. She doesn't have direct control
of this and I don't believe she would use it very wisely if she did. I am
sure she would spend it foolishly if she had opportunity to do so.
E. Did she have a spending allowance when she was at home?
I. She says that her mother used to give her fifty cents a week for
spending money when she was in high school, and that she spent this
for candy and sodas and other trifles, but not for anything serious.
E. Doesn't she buy anything for herself with her allowance, or didn't
she when she was at home?
L She buys little things at Store here, like writing paper, or something
that one of the children has made that is for sale, and she buys her own
toilet articles, and at Christmas time or Easter she buys gifts for friends
and relatives. Her parents send her clothing to her, so that she doesn't
need to buy much of that sort.
E. How about when she's at home?
I. Her mother gives her money to buy some articles of clothing such as
a few underthings or stockings, or things that she wears. Most of the
time her mother is with her when she selects these things. She can be
trusted with money, but never is actually given very much at a time.
You know she is very generous and likes to give things away and buy
things for people. Her mother had to tell the store people at home not
to let her buy things on the family charge account.
E. Does she select her own dresses or coats or the more important kinds
of clothing?
I. Natalie has very nice clothes and I have often spoken to her mother
about how well dressed she is and how much she likes nice things. Her
mother said that Natalie likes nice things but is rather "flashy" and a
little childish in her taste when she picks out things for herself. So,
while she humors Natalie in buying little things and consults her about
her more important clothes, she (the mother) actually decides what to
get after getting Natalie to see it her way. (That sounds a little mixed
up, doesn't it? Does that answer your question all right?)
E. Yes, I see. But you said she does buy some things?
I. Yes, when she is home she is given small bits of money for this and
that and most of the time, but not always, she uses this money as she
is expected to.
E. To what extent does Natalie look after her own health?
318 Illustrative Examinations
I. Well, here in the institution we keep a fairly close check of that and
send the children to the hospital in case of anything serious. She lets
me know when there is something the matter with her or when she doesn't
feel well, but I don't think she uses very good judgment, of course I
keep an eye on her like all the other girls. When she is at home her
parents take her to their own dentist to have her teeth looked after,
and also have their family doctor give her a general examination. And
she had a pretty hard time each month and needed looking after,
but not so much lately.
E. Do you think she could do these things for herself if this were made
her responsibility?
L Well, I think she would in a way, but not very successfully. She has
some idea about avoiding colds and she knows enough to keep away
from the other children if they have some infection, but I notice that
if I don't keep after her she's pretty careless about herself in these
matters.
This group of self -direction items is particularly difficult
to administer to institutionalized subjects, since performances
are limited by the very mental deficiency which makes institu-
tional care desirable and in respect to which environmental
safeguards are necessary or advisable. However, in this case
we have background information as to what the S does at home
when on visits and what she did formerly at home before
institutional placement at 17 years of age. We also have the
opinion of a well-informed attendant of good judgment as to
what the S might be capable of doing if she were in a home
environment.
As for scoring the items, we have the fpllowing data: Items 60, 76
and 87 are scored plus-minus (as being sometimes successfully but not
habitually successfully performed); Items 83, 93, 94, 95, 97, 99, 100
and 101 are minus, and the other items in the self-direction category are
automatically minus or inapplicable. The locomotion items given coin-
cidentally with the self -direction items are scored as follows: Item 53 is
"4-F." Item 61 "— NO," and Items 77, 92 and 96 are minus.
These scores are rendered difficult in this case because of
the wide-spread areas of performance over which the S is only
partially successful both at home and at the institution. It is
rather likely that if the S were given complete freedom, some
of the items might reach a full plus and others a full minus
performance. The somewhat dubious nature of the scoring is
illuminating, however, as revealing the incapabilities of the S
and as indicating the less clear-cut nature of performance
among constitutionally inferior and mentally deficient subjects
as compared with normal subjects. This results from the fact
that such S's can do so many things within guarded limits, but
weakness of judgment operates as a special handicap which
limits complete success on items that are otherwise (or appar-
Constitutionally Inferior Adult 319
ently) within the limits of capability- The feeble-minded or
constitutionally inferior S therefore shows a wider range of
scores on the Scale because of the dependence of performance
on judgment and responsibility and the rather weak capitali-
zation of experience. It is also obvious that such S's would be
most handicapped on those items involving self-direction, since
it is the inability to manage their own affairs which constitutes
their most conspicuous deficiency. Hence the examiner must
be specially on guard for use of can instead of does and should
be careful to check the basis of opinion of "+N0" scores. Lack
of opportunity must not be construed independently of the real
reasons therefor.
E. (Taking: up socialization category.) You have said that Natalie gets
along with the other children well and with employees except for her
irresponsibility. What does she do for recreation?
I. Although Natalie feels herself rather superior to the older and brighter
girls in the group, she is fond of the younger children and really
associates more with them than with the older girls who feel that she is
rather childish in spite of her general ability.
E. What kind of recreation does she prefer?
I. Well, she's always talking about tennis, but she doesn't play the game
very much. She understands it and can keep score and keeps up an
interest in such news about tennis as she can get hold of. She likes to
go swimming and walking and does so whenever she has a chance. She
enjoys playing card games and can even play a fair though rather simple
game of bridge. Most of the girls don't play these games, but Natalie
sometimes fills in when we (staff members) are playing a game.
E. Does she play a good game of bridge? Does she keep score?
I. I would say that she understands the rules and plays a rather simple
game. She likes to keep score and usually does so when she plays with
us. You know she is very quick at arithmetic and prides herself on
understanding and following the rules of the game. However, she doesn't
really play a very good game and often makes quite foolish plays.
E. What other things does she do?
I. Well, when she's out playing with the little girls she joins in games
of tag, turns the rope for them, plays hop-skotch, or in the house she
entertains the younger girls with dominos or games like parchesi. Of
course she does these things much better than the little girls do, and
plays with them more like I would, giving them a chance to win and
apparently enjoying her superiority. She also likes to play grandmother
when the smaller girls are playing house, and often she pretends she
is the attendant when the children "take us off." She is quite a tomboy,
too, and likes the more active games, but of course does not have much
opportunity here for playing them. If she had a chance she would much
prefer to play vigorous boys' games because they are so much more
active.
E. You say she doesn't join the older girls in their activities?
I. Yes, she does. But she isn't so very popular with them. She is a
member of the girls' Triangle Club, and is a leader in that group on the
more difficuk things. You see Natalie is very bright, but she doesn't
have much judgment and the other girls don't like her to dominate them.
She very much enjoys going to camp with her group and is always
planning "big" things for them to do. Even more she likes to be with
320 Illustrative Examinations
the employees and is constantly hinting to them that she would like to be
taken places.
E. You said she is not very responsible herself. Does she assume any
responsibility for others?
I. She looks after the younger girls quite a good deal, and likes to
"mother" them, but she does this like an older sister would, rather than
like an adult. And, of course, she doesn't carry any continuous responsi-
bility, but does this more on special occasions.
E. With this fondness for children, does she still believe in Santa Glaus?
I. Oh dear no! She's much too bright for that, but she does encourage
the younger children and likes to tell them fairy stories and to pretend
as they do.
In this category, the scores are consistently plus for items 56, 59, 68,
69, 85 and 88, and minus for 103 and beyond. In this category Natalie's
relatively high intelligence and activity give her an advantage in directions
where her type of irresponsibility and poor judgment do not put a pre-
mium on successful performance. Nevertheless, there will be noted an
undercurrent of lack of adult maturity revealing both her performances
and her attitude as of the early period of adolescence.
E. (Considering the occupational items.) What kind of work does Natalie
do? Is she helpful and can she be relied upon for any important work?
I. She is a very helpful girl and does a great deal. She is large and
strong and active and enjoys having things to do. She is also quick
and makes herself useful. The only trouble I find is she overdoes it and
is rather forward about it, and this sometimes gets annoying. Also I
can't rely on her for thoroughness.
E. Does she have any special routine of work?
I. Yes, she has her daily "jobs" such as helping to dress the children,
assisting the children in making their beds, waiting tables in the staff
dining room, and things like that. She has a room by herself and takes
care of it. I seldom have to speak to her about the condition of her room.
E. Has she ever had a job with wages ?
I. No, her parents are well-te-do, and have kept her at school. She
doesn't really do much school work any more, although she still attends
classes, and never did finish the first year of high school. The kind of
work she does best is simple housework.
E. Do you think she could get a job and hold it either at housework or
in a factory?
I. I think she might be able to obtain a position because she is rather
plausible until you get to know her, but I doubt if she could hold it.
E. What makes you think so?
I. Well, she is too flighty and irresponsible. She requires a lot of follow-up
and then, you know, she is rather forward, and as I have said before,
she doesn't have very good judgment. In the staff dining room she is
officious and is always "listening in" or "kibitzing."
E. Does she make things for herself?
I. She has had domestic science work and sewing and although she no
longer goes to these classes, she likes to do this kind of work either for
herself or about the house.
E. Just what does she do of this kind?
I. She does good sewing and mending, helps in the care of the other
children, prepares vegetables in the kitchen, takes care of some plants
in her room, tries her hand at cooking but isn't very successful. Oh yes,
and she writes a great many romantic stories.
The scores for this category may be assumed as plus in the earlier
Constitutionally Inferior Adult 321
items. Items 72, 80, 82, 89 are also plus. Item 98 is minus and tJie higher
items in the category are also minus.
E. (Transferring to the communication categoiy.) You say she writes
stories and I judge from what you already said that she likes to read?
I. Yes, this is her long suit. And in her own way she is quite capable.
She reads a great deal in magazines and such newspapers as she may
have. Her people send her quite a few books and she even borrows som?
of mine.
E, What does she like to read?
i. She reads nearly anj^hing she can get hold of. She is specially fond
of romantic novels and likes the more lurid magazine stories if she can
get them. She also enjoys the Geographic Magazine and likes to read
about travel and adventure.
E. Does she read any serious books?
I. Not very many, and not very often> and not very much. When I talk
to her about this reading she doesn't seem to have gained very much
from it except some rather glib information.
E. Would you say that she reads with profit?
1. Yes, to the extent that she keeps me informed on the general news
and especially the sensational news. She keeps pretty well informed
about athletics and knows who's who in the major sports. She has a
general interest in fashions, but this is rather girlish. Also she gets the
news over the radio and it is surprising how much she can tell you about
what's going on in the world!
E. Does she do much writing?
I. I'll say she does! She is always writing to friends and relatives
whether they answer or not. She tells them all about what's going on
here, tells her folks what she needs or wants, and keeps them so well
informed that when they visit her there isn't much left to talk about.
E. Does she have any occasion to write business letters ?
I. She is bothering me all the time about sending for catalogs and
answering the radio offers of samples and things. Then, too, she likes
to order things from catalogs. I usually help her in her selections, but
she does all the correspondence.
E. Does she use the telephone?
I. Not here, except to answer the house phone when it rings, but when
she's at home she keeps the family on edge by calling up all her friends.
E. In doing this, does she call only familiar numbers?
I. No, she uses the telephone book and even likes to place long distance
calls for her father when she has occasion to use the phone at home.
The items in this category tap the special scholastic aptitude of this
S and are plus for all items, i.e., 73, 78, 79, 81, 84, 90 and 91.
E. (Considering self-help items.) May I take it for granted that she looks
after herself pretty well?
I. Well, I'm not sure I understand what you mean.
E. Does she require any Pielp at the table?
I. Not any whatever. She looks after herself entirely.
E. What does this include?
I. Everything. She gets no help whatever, cuts her own meat, prepares
her own food, she has nice table manners, and helps the other girls at
the table who may need assistance.
E. And as to the care of her person?
I. She takes entire care of herself.
E. What do you mean by that?
322 Illustrative Examinations
I. Well, just that.
E. Does this include bathing herself and entirely dressing herself?
I. Yes, she takes her own bath without any assistance whatever and
exercises entire responsibility for her clothes.
E. I thought this wasn't permitted (under institution rules).
I. Well, officially it isn't, but Natalie is so unquestionably able to take
jner own bath and so much likes to be independent that I let her do it.
fehe isn't likely to scald herself or run the tub over or leave it dirty.
And it's the same with her clothes. She selects her own clothes, and as
1 told you she has nice clothes and she knows what to wear for the
proper occasion.
E. Does she get any help at all ? .
I. No, she cares for herself entirely, looks after her own nails, washes
and dries her own hair, curls her own hair (and would go to the barber
or beauty shop if she could). In fact, I never have to look after her in
those respects. Indeed, she helps me a great deal with the other children.
E. Can she tell time ?
I. Oh yes. To the fraction of a minute. She even wants to own a stop
watch!
We have considered the three self-help categories together here and
find all items plus without question.
We are nov/ in a position to total Natalie's scores. The
items are all plus to Item 75, inclusive, except for plus-minus
on Item 60 and minus NO on Items 53 and 61. These three
low items reflect Natalie's special disability in the direction
of social irresponsibility. However, Items 53 and 61 may be
scored plus F even though it seems rather likely that she re-
ceives more or less supervision at home even when she is going
about the neighborhood or when she goes on relatively
nearby errands (the equivalent of going to school unattended) .
The examiner's decision is to allow the plus F score on these
two items because of their position and because the amou-nt of
supervision that Natalie now receives, or appears to need, on
these items is not greater than that which would normally be
exercised for children 4 or 5 years of age. Item 60, however,
is allowed only half credit. The remaining items are as follows :
76, plus-minus ; 77, minus ; 78 to 82, plus ; 83, minus ; 84 to 86,
plus; 87, plus-minus; 88 to 91, plus; 92 to 103 (and beyond),
minus. This gives a basal score of 74.5 with 12 additional full
scores and 2 additional half scores, or a total of 13 additional
points. This gives a total score of 87.5 points, which by inter-
polation (or from the conversion table) gives a total SA of
14.1. Natalie's LA at the time of this examination is 26.1 years,
but since 25 years is the average adult (ceiling) performance,
this latter age is used for purposes of calculating quotients
where the life age is above 25 years. The SQ is therefore 14.1
divided by 25, or SQ = 56. Reference to Table 5 (p. 876) shows
that the mean SQ for LA 25-!- is approximately 100, SD 10.
Deteriorated Adult 323
The position score for SQ 56 is, therefore, — 4.4 SD.
In interpreting this score, we recall that SQ's below 70
when not seriously affected by special handicaps are a sugges-
tive (but not conclusive) indication of possible mental deiicien-
cy. Natalie's SQ of 56 is well within feeble-minded limits and
the SA of 14.1 is well below the upper SA limit of mental defi-
ciency (which we have elsewhere indicated may be taken at SA
18 years for LA 25 plus) . The SA is also one year above the MA
which is consistent with other data for mental defectives. The
examination as a whole further confirms the suspicion of mental
deficiency on qualitative grounds. However, the relatively high
MA and scholastic achievement, even though affected by super-
ficial verbal aptitude, are not consistent with a rigorous diagno-
sis of mental deficiency, but suggest instead the alternative of
constitutional inferiority. This alternative is not altogether
satisfying since constitutional inferiority as a diagnostic syn-
drome is not very clearly defined and is in the realm of
neuropsychiatric practice. This problem of mental age at the
upper limit of mental deficiency coupled with social sufficiency
below the lower limit of normality has not yet been solved.
Case IV, Deteriorated {formerly superior) adult womjin.
LA 84, SA 1.1, SQ 4.
This examination is presented to show the use of the Scale
for the measurement of (a) social deterioration, and (b) the
ability of the S at her prime. The examination illustrates the
practicability of measuring the social consequences of dementia
in the late period of senescence and also of determining the
former level of competence. This is a rather extreme case and
is not to be considered as typical of ordinary senescence,
Mrs. C. is now 84 years of age, American-born, of superior
social-economic and cultural status. She has been a woman of
exceptional attainment, brilliant intellect, and forceful person-
ality. Her father was a teacher in the days when this occupation
was less common than at present. Mrs. C's several children also
are of superior competence. She herself is now an invalid show-
ing signs of extreme mental deterioration and physical
inactivity. She maintained a superior level of social competence
up to age 65-70. At about that age there was a natural decline
in the vigor of her activities, but no signs of deterioration were
observed until she was past 70. During the next 10 years there
was increasing inactivity, but the present serious invalidism
has come about principally within the last two years.
'324 Illustrative Examinations
Mrs. C. is cared for by her daughter who manages a small
private school for subnormal children. The informant is a
granddaughter who has assisted in her care and is intimately
familiar with her present disabilities, as well as with her for-
mer attainments. Under the circumstances the examination
requires special tact and sympathy in view of the natural con-
cern which the informant has for the S. In the course of the
examination the informant is candid and helpful and is intelli-
gently interested both in the conduct and the implications of
the examination, being herself a college graduate and profes-
sionally as well as personally interested in the examination.
E.^ I understand that your grandmother was an exceptional woman in her
prime. Does she manage her own affairs at all now, such as going out
by herself, or handling her own money, or making her own purchases ?
I. No, that is quite beyond her present ability. We have to look after
her completely and do everything for her. It is several years now since
she has been able to look after her own affairs or do any shopping.
This immediately eliminates all self-direction items.
E. Does she get about by herself, or is she taken about?
I. At present she goes nowhere at all except as we take her. She use<J
to travel quite a good deal, then she stopped going out of town. After
a while she no longer even went into town or around the neighborhood.
At the present time she doesn't even go outside the house except as we
take her. In fact, at the present time, she is as dependent as an infant.
E. You mean she doesn't even go about the yard by herself?
I. Not only that, she doesn't even walk about the room. She is unable
to go either upstairs or downstairs by herself. In fact, she is practically
bedridden. We think she is able to get around the room by herself, but
actually she doesn't. She falls very easily when she tries to walk, and so
she eitiier sits in the chair or sits or lies in bed practically all the time.
If she gets about at all, it is only as we take her. It is hard to realize
how completely helpless she really is.
These replies give minus scores for all locomotion items. (Item 12
minus on later evidence for self-help.)
E. What does she do to keep herself occupied? Does she sew, or read?
I. No, she does practically nothing all day long. She does no reading and
nothing at all useful.
E. Does she occupy herself at all ?
I. Yes, she fills in the time at one thing or another for a half -hour or so,
or sometimes for as long as one hour, when she is at her best, without
demanding attention. Mostly we have to help keep her occupied by
suggesting things to do. We try to keep her occupied by giving her little
things to do which are helpful, such as folding the laundry, which she can
do by sitting up to a table. She will do things like this for short periods,
but continued effort makes her nervous. She moves things about^ within
reach and straightens up the objects on the table. We keep thinking she
could do more if she would try, but I guess the fact that she doesn't try
is itself a sign of her weakness.
E. She doesn't then do these things on her own initiative?
I. She very seldom any longer does anything of her own accord. If we
give her things to do she will stay at it for a while, maybe fifteen minutes
Deteriorated Adult 325
or longer, if it does not require too much concentration.
E. I assume then she does not really do any helpful work that requires
getting about?
I. No, that would be out of the question.
E. Do you give her things to do which require the use of cutting, such
as with scissors?
I. No, we are afraid to trust her with knives or scissors or anything that
has sharp points. We don't even let her have a sharpened pencil.
E. She doesn't amuse herself then by making drawings, even of the
simplest kind ?
I. We can't let her have a pen, and don't like to have her have a pencil.
We keep crayons handy in case she wants to use them, but she no longer
shows any inclination to do any writing or dravsdng.
E. Do you rely on her for help in carrying messages from one person to
another or performing little errands for you, such as putting objects
away or bringing them?
I. No, that is out of the question because she isn't able to get about the
room or to help herself, much less us.
In the occupation category. Item 7 is scored plus, Item 19 minus, 22
plus (because of the orderly activity), 24 minus, and all subsequent oc-
cupation items minus.
E. (Taking up communication items.) I understand that she no longer
reads or writes then ?
I. Yes and no. After she stopped writing on her own initative, for a while
she would write if we told her what to say. Now, however, she doesn't
write anything at all, and as for reading, she still reads aloud with good
expression, but her inflection has no relation to the meaning. She reads
for a half -hour or more at a time, but her comments on what she reads
show little relation to the meaning.
E. I suppose there is no difficulty in her conversation ?
I. Yes, I'm sorry to say there is. She talks quite a good deal and some-
times clearly, but mostly her attempts at conversation are rambling and
incoherent.
E. What kind of things does she talk about?
I. Well, she uses sentences all right, but she is unable to carry on a
connected conversation such as being able to tell us ansrthing about what
has been happening while we have been away. She tries to talk to us, bat
most of her connected conversation is irrelevant or incoherent, or, when we
can understand her, her ideas are not connected but move from one thing
to another. Occasionally she has brief intervals when she talks quite
sensibly, but doesn't nevertheless seem to understand what she is saying
in terms of its meaning.
E. Well, if she uses sentences, does she do this in a way to convey her
wants or wishes; that is, does she have any really useful command of
speech ?
I. We can't really depend upon what she says to understand what she
wants. Most of our talk is just to humor her and keep her mind as active
as we can, but what she says to us is so much like babbling or just saying
words that we could hardly call it useful speech except as I said, occasion-
ally she has a kind of "lucid interval" when she can make herself
understood, but these periods are now infrequent.
E. Has she retained enough use of language so that she is able to call for
objects by name, or give the names of familiar objects?
I. Yes, she does ask for objects, but she gets very badly mixed in using
the names of objects. We usually can guess what she wants, but we have
to use our imagination. If we hand her something and ask if that is what
326 Illustrative Examinations
she wants, she is just as likely as not either to refer to it by the wrong
name, or to again call for what she wants using another name. I mean
she gets the names of objects pretty much confused,
E. But I thought you told me before that she reads and comments on
what she reads?
I. Well, that is the odd part of it- I should have said that those comments
are mostly just exclamations. They are usually not in harmony with
the meaning of what she has apparently read, and of course we aren't
really sure that she reads all the time, that is, she might be just following
the copy without getting all the words.
E. But you also said she reads aloud with expression.
I. Yes, that's true. We have puzzled over this ourselves. Have you any
explanation of it?
E. Let's go back a bit. Does she really understand your conversation?
L She enjoys having people talk to her, but judging from her part in the
conversation, either she doesn't understand what is said or else she cannot
form her own replies, for her side of the conversation is limited, incoher-
ent and irrelevant.
E. But does she carry out simple instructions? Does she do what you tell
her?
I. Sometimes, but not always. She seems to understand very simple
commands, but any directions which are at all involved she doesn't carry
out. We are puzzled because sometimes she understands and does fairly
difficult things and then again she seems to have no idea of the simplest
kind of request we might make.
E. Have you any other comment to make?
L What puzzles us most is the variation in her use of language. For
example, she still can say most of the ritual prayers to which she has
been accustomed, and when she does, her speech is perfectly clear.
Sometimes, too, she has very brief periods in which she recalls or relates
some former experiences, but in the midst of such a conversation her
mind is likely to wander to something entirely foreign.
The interpretation of items in this category is made difficult by the
contradictory nature of the information obtained. The information is
consistent with the picture of extreme dementia involving interference
with language functions and revealing illogical contradictions. In such
SL case the examiner cannot avoid being embarrassed in scoring the items
with assurance because of the unstable performances of the S. The
description of performances is clear enough, but the evaluation of them
for scoring purposes can hardly be made very precise. In this case the
scores assigned by the examiner were as follows: Items 1 and 10 plus.
Items 17, 31, 34, 44 and 73, plus-minus, and Items 58 and 63 minus. All
other items in this category are minus. These scores are somewhat diffi-
cult to justify with complete satisfaction and the examiner has perhaps
been somewhat generous on some items with compensating severity of
judgment on other items. The instability of performance is indicated in
the plus-minus scores, where performance is sometimes, but not habitually,
satisfactory. Another examiner might have extended the plus-minus
scores to other items depending upon the rigor of interpretation for
practical purposes. The actual description of performance is more impor-
tant than the scores assigned, since the total score of the S will not
vary greatly as a result of uncertainty in assigning borderline scores
even in so difficult a case as this. Incidentally the student may be interest,
ed in the "demergent" plus-minus score of the deteriorating person in
contrast with the emergent score of the maturing S.
E. (Continuing the examination in the self-help category.) You have told
me that she is pretty helpless. What does she do in the way of looldng
after herself?
Deteriorated Adult 327
I. Do you mean in getting around?
E. Yes, for one thing. Do you have to move her, or does she help herself?
I. Well, as I said before, she does get around the room to some extent,
but not at all actively. You remember I said she is likely to fall over if
she tries to walk. She does sit up in a chair and you remember I said
she was able to do some work at the table. She now has a fear of falling
and while she turns over and can bring herself to a sitting position in
bed, she doesn't pull herself upright to a standing position, and never
stands alone, or if she tries to, she is pretty certain to fall.
E. Does she get about the room by crawling on the floor ?
I. No. She doesn't even do that. If she falls to the floor, she just lies
there and cries for help until we pick her up.
E. Does she help herself when in difficulty?
I. I would say not. Even the simplest obstacle is difficult for her to
overcome. She isn't able to move her chair from one part of the room to
another or to turn the lights on or off, or to raise or close the window, or
even to lower the shade. Is that the kind of thing you mean ?
E. Yes, and more than that. Is she careful in avoiding ordinary dangers ?
I. No, we have to pay careful attention to the things around her. If she
tries to move from her chair she is likely to fall. As I said, we don't let
her have anything except blunt instruments. She's even likely to knock
things over, and shows no discretion at all in protecting herself from
even the simplest hazards.
E. Do you have to help her at the toilet or does she do this for herself?
I. She has to be taken to the toilet. Indeed, she doesn't even tell us when
she needs help. We have to anticipate her needs, and even with care
she sometimes has an "accident" like a small baby would.
E. How do you take her out?
I. We have a wheel-chair in her room and another on the porch and lor
use in the yard. Actually it is so difficult to move her that she spends
practically all of her time in her room. We used to take her out in the
car, but this is much too trying. Her wheel-chair is practically a baby-
carriage, for she doesn't even wheel herself around.
E. Is she still able to tell time?
I. No, she doesn't seem to have any appreciation of time, and pays no
attention to the passage of time. I don't know whether she can still tell
time from a clock or not, but actually she makes no use of any kind of
time-piece. If it is a question of giving her medicine every haLf-hour or
so, she doesn't have enough idea of the passage of time to do this by
herself.
These self-help general items on the basis of this (anjd previously
related) information are scored plus for Items 2, 3, 5, 6, 8 and 13. The
scores are minus for Items 9, 15, 23, 26, and the remainder of the self-help
general category. Item 12 (locomotion category) is also minus.
E. As to feeding, does she feed herself at all, or do you have to help her?
I. She is able to drink from a cup and even a glass if we hold it for her.
And she still does this without spilling things. When she tries to drink
without help, which she sometimes does, she doesn't succeed very well and
spills quite a good deal. On the other hand, she has her "good days," and
then she is able to drink by herself without help.
E. Does she do this very often?
I. Not as a rule, but sometimes. She is doing this less and less as time
goes on.
E. You have said that she is confined to her room and is unable to get
about. I suppose this means she would not be able to get a drink by
herself?
328 Illustrative Examinations
I, That would be quite out of the question. She doesn't walk around,
would not be able to get herself a glass or reach the tap. And she would
drop the glass anyway.
E. Does she have control of saliva, or if not, does she wipe her own mouth ?
I. She sometimes drools, especially when eating, and sometimes before
or after eating. Usually she wipes her own mouth with napkins that
we keep handy, but often this has to be done for her.
E. Does she use a knife and fork for eating?
I. We are afraid to let her have a fork, because of the sharp points, and
also because when she does use a fork she is so awkward and spills
everything she tries to eat. She doesn't use a knife at all any more, not
even for spreading her bread. And of course we have to cut her meat and
prepare her plate.
E. Does she chew her food, or does she just swallow it without chewing?
I. She has had dental plates for the last twenty years, but for the past
five years she has not used these because she doesn't manage them very
well and we're afraid she might swallow them. I think she might be able
to chew with her gums, but actually we give her only soft or liquid foods
which do not require mastication.
E. Does she discriminate between things that are suitable for eating and
those which are not edible?
I. She doesn't have much chance because we don't leave very many things
around. However, I have never known her to try to eat something that
was not fit to eat, and although we are careful what we feed her, she
has very positive likes and dislikes for certain things and will refuse to
eat things she doesn't like.
E. Does she remove the wrappings from candy or the coverings from food
that may need peeling?
I. She doesn't have a chance because we prepare all her food for her. I
have noticed, however, that if there are things around that might be
eaten before they are prepared for her, she never removes the peelings
or wrappings herself. For example, she will not eat an apple until we
have peeled it for her, and she makes no attempt to peel a banana. If we
have wrapped candy on her tray, she leaves it until we have taken the
wrapping off for her.
E. Does she feed herself Avith a spoon or does she have to be fed ?
I. We have to feed her. She tries to eat with a spoon, but she's so
unsteady that the results are not very pleasant to watch. So for some
time we have been feeding her ourselves with a spoon.
The scores for the self-help eating items are plus for Items 11 and 30,
plus-minus for Items 16 and 25, and minas for Items 20, 28, 33, and the
remainder of the category.
E. To what extent does she dress or undress herself?
I. We have to do every little thing for her. She doesn't take off any of
her own clothes and doesn't even help the least bit. In fact, she has to
be dressed and undressed like a baby, even to the buttoning.
E. You assist her at bathing ?
I, Yes, in every detail even to washing and drying her hands and face.
She used to dry her hands until recently, but not any more.
This reply indicates minus scores for all the self-help dressing items.
E. (Including the lower limiting socialization items in relation to self-
help.) You have said she manages to call when she needs something?
I, She cries or somehow manages to attract our attention when she is in
trouble or wants something. She also demands quite a good deal of what
I suppose you would call social attention in that she wants to be enter-
Deteriorated Adult 329
tained like a small child would. As I have said, she tries to keep up her
end of a conversation and likes to be with company if it isn't overdone.
E. Does she still recognize friends and members of the family?
I. Yes, she knows the immediate members of the family and the nurse.
but sometimes seems to confuse them when talking with them. She doesn't
like to be helped by people with whom she is not closely acquainted.
E. Does she show any desire to be occupied in what might be called play
or recreation with other people ?
I. Only as I have indicated, when she wants to talk with people or be
with them, or maybe to "read" to them.
E. I understand she used to play and sing a good deal. Does she still like
to entertain people?
I. Once in a while she still sings and her voice is still clear and pleasing.
but I notice that she does this less and less. Also she likes to say the
ritual prayers especially when others are present and likes to do this for
the members of the family.
E. I suppose anything beyond this is out of the question?
I. Quite.
E. Has she shown any disposition to return to a childish belief in fairies
or the sort of thing represented by belief in Santa Glaus ?
I. No. She seems to have no interest along these lines. She takes a
childish interest in Christmas and other holidays like Easter, but seems
to have no appreciation of the significance of the occasion outside its
personal pleasures. I wouldn't say that she has returned to a belief in
fairies, but rather that these ideas are now beyond her.
The scores of the socialization items are plus for Items 4 and 14, pins-
minus for 49, and minus for the remainder of the category.
Summarizing this examination, we have plus scores to
Item 8 inclusive, which becomes the basal score. Additional
plus items are Items 10, 11, 13, 14, 2^2 and 30. Items obtaining"
plus-minus scores are 16, 17, 25, 31, 34, 44, 49 and 73. All
other items are minus. The total score is therefore a basal score
of 8 plus 10 additional points (6 plus and 8 plus-minus). This
is equivalent to 18 points, or SA 1.1, SQ 4, It is interesting"
that the performance level as estimated by the informant is
only 1 year, which might, however, be interpreted as between
1 and 2 years.
In interpreting and commenting upon this score, it is
necessary to bear in mind the rather obvious accompanying
circumstances. The S is clearly in a state of severe and perma-
nent progressive deterioration. As will appear from the exami-
nation of this same S at her prime, her present level is a
reduction to early infant level of performance from a previously
superior adult performance. It is impracticable in examining
the S for present status to allow F-score credit, because the
previously successful performances have been lost as a result
of presumably permanent mental impairment (p. 284).
The examination is especially interesting as well as some-
what difficult by reason of the dementia and the rapid and
330 Illustrative Examinations
progressive loss of performance which on many items is
revealed as uneven, unstable, or irregular. We may observe
therefore a number of performances which are in process of
being lost through deterioration as compared with the emergent
items which may be observed among developing infants and
children. The number of these (eight) is itself significant aiid
the examination is embarrassed by the difficulty of assigning
precise objective scores to these performances which are of
such dubious character, or are sometimes satisfactorily per-
formed but not habitually. Attention may also be called to the
range of the examination and the uneven spread which is so
much more charactistic of dementia than of normal infancy.
This examination suggests how the information obtained
by dealing with several items at one time applies to several or
all items of a group. The experienced examiner will readily
observe the practicability of omitting some items in a given
category because of obvious inability to perform these items
as indicated by information obtained in other categories. Thus
the fact that this S is confined to her room and is unable to
get about, immediately gives automatic scores to a considerable
group of items for which locomotion is a prerequisite. On the
other hand, care must be observed to insure that failure on a
particular item is not offset by some substitutive performance
on another item in respect to which the first performance
might seem to be prerequisite. It is therefore advisable in the
interests of thoroughness to check each item independently as
has been done in the above illustration. This sometimes reveals
inconsistencies in the information obtained and the examiner
is able to check back and forth on the Scale as a whole.
The examiner must be specially cautious not to challenge
the veracity of the informant from the point of view of intent
to mislead, but should tactfully check the internal consistency
of all information as related to the Scale as a whole. When
this is done, some apparent inconsistencies will be justified by
the variations in requirements from one item to another which
at first thought seem to contain the same essential preconditions.
Case IV. (at prime.) Socially superior adult ivoman. LA 70,
SA (Retrospective) 30+, SQ 120+.
The present social competence of this S (as just revealed)
is that of a one-year-old infant reduced from a previously
superior adult level as indicated by the orienting information
Socially Superior Adult 331
at the beginning of the examination. The examiner now pro-
ceeds to determine the condition of the S at her prime.
The two examinations are specially interesting as involving
both extremes of the Scale. It would, of course, have been
feasible to plot the course of the deterioration by making a series
of examinations dated at successive chronological stages of the
period of involution. It would also have been possible within
the limits of information available to have made successive
examinations of her development before reaching her prime
and throughout its duration.
These possibilities of the retrospective examination are
extremely important for certain purposes, especially in family
history studies (cf. p. 466) and in gerontological studies
(cf. p. 484) where the status of adult or postmature propositi
must be taken at (or projected to) their prime. Such examina-
tions accent the importance of insuring for any examination
whether the S was formerly at some higher or lower level of
attainment in total performance or on particular items.
The examiner should tlierefore be on the lookout for the
possibility of loss or recovery in performance which is either
temporary or permanent as provided for in the instructions for
F-scores (p. 283). It will be recalled from those instructions
that F-credit is not allowed if the S at the time of examination
shows loss in performance as a result of senescence or rela-
tively permanent mental or physical impairment. In all
examinations, therefore, the examiner should be on the alert
to raise the question from time to time, "Has the S ever done
so and so?," or "How long has he been doing (or not doing)
so?" Likewise, F-scores should not be used in the specific
measurement of social competence during critical episodes,
such as temporary deterioration, except as the measurement
of such episodic deterioration is itself a direct issue.
In the present case, having completed the examination
for present status, the examination continues as follows:
E. You told me that your grandmother, Mrs. C, was not always like this.
I. Yes, she was previously well-known as an unusually capable woman.
E. (Seeking a tactful approach to the examination as to former status
and date.) Will you tell me something about her accomplishments in
those earlier days?
I. People have told me that my grahdnlother was an unusually energetic
and resourceful person. She married early, but from the time of her
marriage, and in spite of a large family, she was very active in nearly
everything of importance that was going on.
•E. What were some of the things that she did ?
332^ Illustrative Examinations
I. For many years she sang in a church choir, and even now has a grood
voice. For years she was active as the head of an organization for city
beautification, and was successful in having streets widened, trees planted,
buildings kept in repair, and so on. She also promoted missionary
extension work, was an active member of the local Historical Society,
and was a member of the Colonial Dames. I don't remember all the
different organizations to which she belonged, but I know there were
quite a number and rather important, and that she wasn't one to shirk
responsibility.
E. (Organizing information of the socialization items.) Would you say
that she was also well-known outside her community, say in the state,
or was her work perhaps even of a national character?
L No, not quite that. She held offices in these societies, but to the best of
my knowledge her work was entirely in this town. Of course she was
interested in the state organizations, but I don't believe she had any
active part in them.
E. Aside from these societies, did she hold any important public positions ?
Was she active in business or politics ?
I. I wouldn't say so. She had a wide interest in civic betterment, but
aside from holding offices in these organizations that I have mentioned,
she didn't really hold any important public positions. She was never in
business, and had no occasion to manage other people's affairs except
as I have indicated.
E. But she did go outside her own family to help other people ?
I. Oh, yes. Not only that, but people came to her from all around the
neighborhood, and when there was any important movement affecting
the church or the schools, they would come to ask her advice about it.
People used to come to her with their family troubles, or in case of severe
illness in the family. She seemed to be a person to whom people came
spontaneously for advice and sympathy.
E. How long did these activities continue ?
I. Well, almost up to. the time when she was about 70 years old. Of course
I don't have very much personal recollection of this, but it has been talked
about in the family a good deal. Even after 50 or 60 she still used to do
a great deal. Then she became less active, but not any less interested.
Mother has often talked about how she used to patch up other people's
difficulties and bring people together who had perhaps had serious
quarrels.
E. When did you first personally become clearly aware of your grand-
mother with some sense of personal detachment?
I. I'll have to think that out. I'm now 29 and she is 84. I was always
very close to "Nannie" (that's what we call her) and she humored me by
talking about herself when we exchanged confidences. And then later
she would talk reminiscently about the old days. Or mother would relate
her achievements as something we should be proud of as a family.
E. But can you "date" some point when you formed your own independent
judgment about her?
I. Yes, I can. It was at the end of my first year in high school. We had
a long talk one night that stands out clearly in my mind. It was sort-of
woman to woman (although I was only 15). I needn't tell you what it
was all about, but next morning and thereafter it seemed as if we had
changed places and now I was looking after her instead of her watching
me.
E. And she was then, let's see, about 70?
I. Sixty-nine, approaching her seventieth birthday.
E. And the things you've just told me about her — was she like that then ?
I. Yes. I'm sure she was still as I recall her now about that time. But
from family talk I'd say she was "turning the corner" or, as you might
Socially Superior Adult 333
say, she had topped the hill and was beginning to let up.
E. You don't remember her so clearly before then?
I. No, except from mother's frequent conversation. If you'd care to aslc
her, I'm sure
E. Well, let's assume that she is 70 and you're a sophomore in high school.
What you've told me about her is pretty sound?
I. That's when Gene and I were budding pianists. He was fond of her,
too. Yes — I'm sure I can "place" her then, and looking back I often
think that she must have already been facing the sunset.
The examiner accepts that "dating" and proceeds as if the S were
at LA 70.
The socialization items are readily scored plus for Items 103, 104, 109,
110, and minus for Items 115 aind 117.
At this level in this case the socialization items are rather obviously
related to the self -direction items, and might well have been given at the
same time had the "dating" been already determined.
E. And in financial matters, was she a good manager?
I. Yes indeed. She and my grandfather were quite well-to-do at the time
of their marriage. Of course I don't know all this from personal knowledge,
but from what I have gathered from family conversation. Before her
marriage she was carefree and gay, but when her husband began to waste
their resources as he did in later life, she took charge of things as far as
she could, and became the business manager of the family. She had a
large household and several servants, and this required not only good
management, but careful spending. Then, of course, she had an important
share in the things that were done by the societies of which she was a
member. You see, some of these had quite a bit of money to spend, like
the Historical Society. And while she was never treasurer of any of
these, she had an important part in decisions involving the spending of
money in fairly large sums.
E. Would you say she had good business judgment in the use of money?
I. Well, aside from running a large household economically (her credit
was always good everywhere) she persuaded my grandfather to build the
house which my mother now uses as a private school. In those days this
was considered a mansion. She tied up quite a bit of their money in this
house and its furnishings. She also provided well for her children in the
way of education and getting them started. I don't believe she did much in
the way of business investments. She was always cautious about that sort
of thing and preferred to put her money into property. Would you call
that investment? Then when my mother started the school, she used to
do the buying for my mother.
B. And would you say that she was as capable as this when she was 70?
I. That would have been 1921, Yes, mother still relied on her completely.
The self -direction items are scored plus for Items 100, 101, 102, 105,
and 112.
E. (Shifting to occupation category.) You say she helped your mother
start this private school. I suppose this was after her own family was
more or less scattered ?
L Yes. When the family broke up my grandmother hadn't much to do,
and had this large property on her hands. Things had been going pretty
badly with the family finances due to my grandfather's carelessness in
financial matters, endorsing people's notes, and putting money into
doubtful business ventures. My mother then started the school, with my
grandmother's help.
E. In this capacity, what kind of actual work would you say Mrs. C. did ?
I. Well, in view of her previous experience in managing a pretty large
334 Illustrative Examinations
household, she took over the principle responsibility for mana^n^ the
help, planning the meals, buying food, and things like that, while my
mother planned the educational program.
E. Did Mrs. C. actually do this on her own responsibility or under your
mother's direction? And, don't forget, was she really doing it in 1921?
I. They had a division of responsibility according to which my grandmother
was responsible for the general management of the school as a kind of
chief steward would be, but my mother really planned the work as a
whole and really had the final responsibility for what her mother did. But
as I said, my grandmother managed the help and supervised the general
housekeeping side of the work.
E. Would you say this work was of professional character?
I. No, it was more like responsible household management. My mother
did the professional work on the care and training of the children that
came to her school.
E. Did Mrs. C. do any professional work in other directions? Or did she
write o 
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