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Water Quality
Indicators Guide:
Surface Waters
AD-33 Bookplate
All programs and services of the Soil Conservation Service
are available without regard to race, color, religion, sex, agi
marital status, handicap, or national origin.
United States
Department of
Agriculture
Soil
Conservation
Service
Water Quality
Indicators Guide:
Surface Waters
Charles R. Terrell
National Water Quality Specialist
Ecological Sciences Division
Soil Conservation Service
Washington. D.C.
Dr. Patricia Bytnar Perfetti. Head
Departments of Geoscience and
Environmental Studies
Physics and Astronomy
University of Tennessee — Chattanooga
Chattanooga. Tennessee
Issued September 1989
Soil
Conservation
Service
P.O. Box 2890
Washington, D C.
20013
FOREWORD
With more than fifty years of experience in soil and related
resources, the Soil Conservation Service (SCS) is actively involved in
agriculturally related water quality issues. In recent years as the
public has become concerned about surface and ground water problems, SCS
has endeavored to meet water quality needs by developing and transferring
new and innovative technologies. As part of that new effort the SCS has
developed the Water Quality Indicators Guide: Surface Waters to aid in
finding water quality solutions to problems from sediment, animal
wastes, nutrients, pesticides, and salts.
With the creation of new laws, such as the Food Security Act of 1985
and the Water Quality Act of 1987, and many new regulations relating
agriculture and water quality, SCS needs new tools to address water quality
situations. The Water Quality Indicators Guide also helps fulfill the
needs of educators for information and guidance to teach water quality in
a clear and understandable manner.
The Water Quality Indicators Guide employs a simplified approach,
allowing the user to learn the fundamental concepts of water quality
assessment quickly. The guide extracts basic tenets from many
disciplines, such as geology, hydrology, biology, ecology, and
wastewater treatment, and focuses those ideas in making decisions about
water quality. With the guide the user can assess potential water
quality conditions without elaborate chemical testing procedures or
intricate species identification. Then, the user can determine
possible sources of the problem on adjacent lands, and recommend
practices for correcting the condition.
The SCS has backed the guide's qualitative approach with the skills,
knowledge, and experience of SCS biologists, hydrologists , water quality
specialists and others from across the Nation. Our hope is that the
Water Quality Indicators Guide: Surface Waters will prove to be a useful
tool in making water quality assessments, leading to improved water quality
and a better environment for all of us.
ROBERT R. SHAW
Deputy Chief for Technology
July 18, 1988
#V The Soil Conservation Service
y( jt is an agency ot the
^^£r Department of Agriculture
WO-AS-1
10-79
i
Preface
The Water Quality Indicators Guide: Surface Waters is dedi-
cated to Vernon M. Hicks, retired Soil Conservation Service
(SCS) biologist, who fostered the idea of the guide when he was
National Environmental Coordinator for SCS. As a result of
many years of service in the South and the Northeastern United
States, Mr. Hicks recognized the need for SCS field personnel to
have a guide that allowed the user to recognize surface water
quality problems easily but reliably, and to select conservation
and best management practices that help remedy those problems.
To date, few water quality publications have employed the
indicator approach where environmental "surrogates" are used to
represent pollution potentials. However, Mr. Hicks believed that
environmental conditions could be surveyed without elaborate
chemical testing procedures, and judgments made based on
surrogates, concerning the quality of waters.
The core of the Water Quality Indicators Guide is the field
sheets and list of associated practices to remedy or abate agricul-
tural nonpoint source pollution. The field sheets are arranged in
matrix format with environmental indicators given for sediment,
animal wastes, nutrients, pesticides, and salts. Each indicator is
divided into descriptions of the environment from excellent to
poor, and each description is given a weighted numerical rank-
ing. The user matches the individual description with what is
observed in the water or on the land. By totaling the individual
rankings, a score is obtained indicating the potential for agricul-
tural nonpoint source problems. Practices can be selected from
the list to alleviate problem situations.
With practice, the user of this guide will find that he or she
can quickly learn water quality assessment procedures through
the use of the guide's field sheets. With experience, the user's
ability to assess water quality situations accurately with the field
sheets will also increase. The guide is flexible, with places on
the field sheets where the user can insert environmental sur-
rogates representing local environmental conditions.
Charles R. Terrell
National Water Quality Specialist
Soil Conservation Service
United States Department of Agriculture
Washington, D.C.
July 18, 1988
Contents
943191
Introduction iv
Chapter 1 - Pollution Related to Agriculture 1
Chapter 2 - Water Quality Field Analysis 9
Chapter 3 - Ecology of Freshwater Systems 17
Chapter 4 - Sediment 19
Chapter 5 - Nutrients 23
Chapter 6 - Pesticides 29
Chapter 7 - Animal Wastes 33
Chapter 8 - Salts 37
Appendix A - Water Quality Procedures 43
Appendix B - Aquatic Organisms 4M
Appendix C - Glossary 78
Appendix D - References 81
Appendix E - Conservation and Best Management
Practices 84
Appendix F - Field Sheets 88
iii
Introduction
Audience and Purpose of This Guide
The Water Quality Indicators Guide: Surface Waters is in-
tended for the district conservationists and other field personnel
of the Soil Conservation Service (SCS). It is designed to help
field personnel recognize agricultural nonpoint source problems
and their potential causes, and to give corrective measures. The
Indicators Guide is meant to complement SCS's previously pub-
lished Water Quality Field Guide (SCS-TP-160). Together, these
two guides provide a comprehensive examination of surface
water agricultural nonpoint problems and possible solutions.
The Role of the Soil Conservation Service in Water Quality
Throughout the history of the Soil Conservation Service,
Congress has authorized SCS to provide water quality improve-
ments through flood and pollution control. Much of SCS's work
in water quality began in the early 1970's as a result of growing
public concern about agriculturally related pollution. SCS assist-
ed State and local efforts to develop agricultural plans under
Section 208 of the Clean Water Act of 1977.
Both the Soil and Water Resources Conservation Act of
1977 and the Agriculture and Food Act (1981 farm bill)
strengthened SCS's role in setting clean water objectives. More
water efforts are cited in the Food Security Act of 1985 (1985
farm bill) that has important implications for SCS's future activi-
ties concerning water quantity and quality.
A Note to the User of This Guide
The Water Quality Indicators Guide examines five major
sources of agriculturally related nonpoint source pollution-
sediment, nutrients, animal waste, pesticides, and salts. Field
sheets are provided to enable the user to assess surface water
quality problems easily and accurately and to select appropriate
remedial practices. The field sheet concept was adapted from a
Wisconsin Department of Natural Resources methodology (ref.
1-1). The field sheets are completed in the field through onsite
observations, rather than chemical or physical measurements.
Conservation and best management practices (BMP's) are
recommended to reduce or eliminate nonpoint source pollution
originating from agricultural lands.
This type of approach may be sufficient in some instances to
confirm that a particular nonpoint source pollution problem ex-
ists. In other instances, it may lead you to suspect a given pollu-
tant, which can then be confirmed or denied by additional
scientific analysis. When available, dissolved oxygen meters, sa-
linity and conductivity meters, and field test kits may be used to
supplement the Water Quality Indicators Guide field sheets.
However, acceptable determinations can be made by using the
field sheets without test kits or meters. When a particular non-
point source pollutant is identified, the user of this guide is
directed to possible solutions (conservation and best management
practices), which are listed by number on the field sheets.
There are two types of field sheets: one type for receiving
waters, including streams, rivers, lakes, and ponds; and another
type for use on agricultural lands draining into the receiving
waters. Chapter 1 reviews the overall distribution of agricultural
nonpoint source problems. Chapter 2 gives a history of the
water quality indicators approach and gives some general limita-
tions of the Water Quality Indicators Guide: Surface Waters. In-
structions for the water-based "A" type field sheets and for the
land-based "B" type field sheets are contained in chapter 2.
Chapter 3 presents background ecological information about
aquatic ecosystems, especially stream systems.
Chapters 4 through 8 discuss the five major pollutants-
sediment, nutrients, pesticides, animal wastes, and salts. These
chapters discuss in detail the water quality indicators enumerated
in the water-based "A" series of field sheets. It is assumed that
Soil Conservation Service district conservationists and other field
personnel will be familiar with the terminology given in the
land-based "B" field sheets, so few specific instructions are
given for the "B" field sheets. The "B" field sheets are
designed to assess the pollutant generation potential of a particu-
lar field or pasture and are completed in the same way as the
"A" field sheets. As an aid, a glossary of terms appears in ap-
pendix C.
IV
Chapter 1
Pollution Related to Agriculture
Recent reports acknowledge that a principal water quality
problem in our Nation is nonpoint source pollution. The U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency defines nonpoint source (NPS)
pollution as precipitation-driven stormwater runoff, generated by
land-based activities, such as agriculture, construction, mining,
and silviculture. Agricultural nonpoint sources are crop and
animal production activities. These activities result in diffuse
runoff, seepage, or percolation of pollutants from the land to
surface and ground waters (ref. 1-2). Problems relating to
agricultural nonpoint source pollution can be observed in the
entire range of water bodies from estuaries to lakes and
impoundments, to rivers, streams, and even farm ponds. Ground
water is also vulnerable to pollution. Contaminated wells and
drinking water supplies are now being identified.
In general, water quality problems result from five categories
of agriculturally related nonpoint source pollution: sediment,
nutrients, animal wastes, pesticides, and salts. Figure 1-1 shows
the geographic potential for nonpoint source pollution of surface
waters. The potential for agricultural nonpoint source pollution
problems, according to SCS's Second Resources Conservation
Act (RCA) Appraisal report (ref. 1-3), is shown in figures 1-2
through 1-7:
Figure 1 -1
Composite Potential for Nonpoint Source Pollution of Surface Waters.
Potential
■ - High
ESS - Medium
□ - Low
An area with a "low" composite rating could have a high
rating for a specific contaminant. Ratings were made for multi-
county watershed areas and do not identify more localized
problems.
1
Figure 1-2
Potential for Pesticide Problems.
The potential for surface water pollution by pesticides was
estimated by multiplying the crop acreages in each area by
pesticide application coefficients for 184 pesticides. These values
were multiplied by an availability factor that estimated the
percentage of an application leaving a field and were adjusted by
a runoff value for the growing season. Pollution potential is
estimated for each watershed as a whole; localized conditions
may be masked by aggregation. To confirm the existence of
pesticide pollution, stream and lake monitoring would be
necessary.
2
Figure 1 -3
Tons of Manure Per Acre of Cropland and Grassland.
The number of each type of animal in a county (from the
1982 Agricultural Census) was multiplied by the appropriate
manure production factor. The amounts of manure produced by
all the county's livestock were totaled and aggregated by area;
the total was divided by the acreage of cropland plus grassland
(from the Agricultural Census) in each area.
3
Figure 1-4
Potential for Animal Waste Problems.
The figure shows potential for pollution resulting from
animal wastes, taking into account percentage of manure
needing improved management, percentage of cropland and
grassland associated with animal enterprises, runoff from
precipitation, ratio of feed purchased to feed produced on farm,
and ratio of nitrogen and phosphorus available from manure to
nitrogen and phosphorus needed by crops.
4
Figure 1 -5
Potential for Nutrient Problems.
Source: WATSTORE (U S Geological Survey data from water quality stations. Ref 1 -4)
The potential for impairment of water quality was estimated
by determining nutrient concentrations, by form, and comparing
them with the respective threshold levels at which they threaten
desired water uses. Data on nutrient concentrations were taken
from WATSTORE (U.S. Geological Survey data from water
quality stations). Stations were primarily National Stream
Quality Accounting Network stations at the downstream and of
hydrologic accounting units. Estimates of pollution potential are
for the watershed as a whole and may not reflect localized
conditions.
5
Figure 1 -6
Estimated Sediment Yield.
Sources: (1) 1982 National Resources Inventory (USDA-SCS, 1984, Ref. 1-5).
(2) USGS Surface Soil Surveys (Ref. 1 -6).
(3) USDA Soil Survey Laboratory Data State Reports (Ref. 1-7).
Estimated sheet and rill erosion rates reported in the 1 982
NRI were adjusted to county boundaries. Sediment delivery for
each county and land use was estimated using state sediment
delivery curves developed for the 1977 NRI. Sediment delivery
rates are assumed to be higher in areas where streams are more
numerous and closely spaced and where the surface soils have a
higher percentage of fine particles (silt and clay). Data from
USGS Surface Soil Surveys and USDA Soil Survey laboratory
data were analyzed also.
6
Figure 1 -7
Potential for Salinity Problems.
Sources: (1) U S Geological Survey National Stream Quality Accounting Network (NASQAN) stations in ASAs (Ref 1-8)
(2) Published and unpublished data from EPA and USGS
To assess potential, indicators of total dissolved solids,
adjusted sodium adsorption, and chloride concentration were
checked and total solid loads were analyzed using data for
agricultural acreages, areas affected by saline or sodic soils, and
irrigated acres as modifying and or contributing factors. Data
analyzed were taken from the U.S. Geological Survey National
Stream Quality Accounting Network stations and published and
unpublished data from EPA and USGS.
Chapter 2
Water Quality Field Analysis
History of the Indicators Approach
Two centuries ago, when the U.S. population was small, the
number of farmers and farm animals was also small. Agricultur-
al wastes did not overload streams or other receiving water bod-
ies. In those days, streams cleansed themselves naturally. Today,
with the increasing complexity of farms, many watercourses and
water bodies are unable to cope with the pollution loads being
generated.
The SCS Water Quality Indicators Guide: Surface Waters is
designed to determine by means of an indicators approach
whether farm-generated materials are a problem. Water pollution
investigators have used this type of approach since the turn of
the century. At the heart of this approach is a comparison of
water quality conditions above and below a suspected source of
pollution. In most instances, the suspected source may be a
"point" source pollution: that is. a type of pollution that can be
readily identified as coming from a discrete source, such as a
discharging pipe (e.g., a sewage outfall).
The Water Quality- Indicators Guide adapts this approach for
use with nonpoint source pollution— pollutants whose sources are
diffuse and not readily identifiable. Nonpoint source pollutants
include those substances which run off, wash off. or seep
through the ground into receiving watercourses and water bod-
ies. Agricultural nonpoint source pollution tends to wash or run
off large tracts of cropland, pastures, feedlots, etc., and the con-
ditions leading to pollution are highly variable.
One of the most important pollution variables is flow. In
nonirrigated regions, loadings of the most common nonpoint
source pollutants in a small stream tend to be proportional to the
amount of runoff. Runoff, in turn, varies with conditions, such
as: (1) amount of snow melt or rainfall; (2) rate of snowmelt or
rainfall; (3) soil type, condition, slope, vegetative cover, and
land use: (4) time elapsed since the previous storm; and (5)
seasonal timing and intensity of storm events.
Not only are the timing and extent of nonpoint source pollu-
tion events highly variable, but the effects of nonpoint source
pollutants, either singly or in combination, are also variable.
The effect of a given pollutant on water quality depends upon
local site-specific environmental conditions: that is, on the local
geology and the physical chemical characteristics of the nearby
water.
Both water quality and rate of flow influence the types of
organisms that inhabit a given watercourse or water body . Or-
ganisms respond to many local environmental conditions, includ-
ing climate, habitat availability, streambed type. etc. The
ecology of watercourses is discussed in the next chapter.
Limitations of the Water Quality Indicators Guide
The Water Quality Indicators Guide was written to cover
the entire United States, so it is general by intent. It can be ex-
pected that a particular stream or pond may deviate from the
norms presented and will require the user to make adjustments
for local situations. However, the guide has been field tested in
five States across the Nation and by individual Soil Conservation
Service personnel from many other States. The ideas, sugges-
tions, and comments from those tests have been incorporated
into this version. The Indicators Guide is not a research tool,
nor does it give quantitative data, but as a qualitative tool and as
an educational or learning device, it will aid the user in evaluat-
ing agricultural nonpoint source pollution problems.
This guide is especially limited where water flow rates are
excessively low or high. In ephemeral or intermittent streams,
some parts of this guide, such as observing fish, vegetation, or
bottom invertebrates, cannot be used. The guide's use may be
limited in heavily silted, mud-bottom streams, where the silt's
presence provides an unsuitable habitat for many species. Also,
heavy siltation of the water can "mask" the effects of nutrients
that may be present, by shutting out light that normally would
reach aquatic vegetation, allowing its growth. Thus, the
vegetational part of the nutrient field sheet may not work well in
heavily silted waters. In these cases, chemical testing may be
necessary to determine nutrient levels.
Description of the Field Sheets
The heart of the SCS W ater Quality Indicators Guide:
Surface Waters is a series of field sheets (appendix F). The field
sheets relate to surface water quality and are designed to help
field personnel assess the degree of contribution to receiving
waters from agriculturally related pollutants, namely sediment,
animal waste, nutrients, pesticides, and salts. The receiving
watercourses are natural streams, constructed channels, or
receiving water bodies, such as ponds or lakes.
The field sheets are of two types: "A" and "B." The five
"A" field sheets are designed to assess the effects of pollutants
to receiving waters. These are water-based field sheets and
should be completed onsite. following visual inspection of the
receiving water.
By contrast, the seven "B" field sheets are land-based and
are designed to assess the pollutant potential of a particular field
or pasture: i.e.. how likely it is that an agriculturally produced
pollutant will be carried from a given field or pasture to a
receiving watercourse or water body, or to ground water. There
are more "B" field sheets than "A" sheets, because some land-
based activities or environmental conditions required special em-
phasis.
Procedure for Field Analysis
NOTE: Do not write on the original field sheets. Make a copy
of each field sheet before proceeding and write on the copies.
Step 1. Begin by completing the background information section
(part 1 ) of the "Watershed Assessment." Although the
Watershed Assessment was designed to be used w ith natural
perennial streams, it can be adapted for use on either inter-
mittent or ephemeral streams or on constructed waterways.
Please note that this evaluation cannot be made in the office.
It must be made onsite. in the field. If you lack some of the
necessary information, seek it from the landowner or opera-
tor, county agricultural extension agent, biologist, or other
knowledgeable person.
Step 2. The "On-Farm (Ranch) Water Assessment" should be
completed for each farm or ranch visited.
Step 3. Next, do a preliminary assessment of possible nonpoint
source impacts by answering the questions asked in the
"Watercourses" or "Water Bodies" Field Sheet Selection
(part 2). If any of the questions in pan 2 of the assessment
receives a "yes" answer, then it is likely that the receiving
water is being adversely affected by the pollutant indicated in
the last column under the heading "Probable Cause." You
9
can verify this by completing the field sheets for this particu-
lar pollutant.
Please note that it is much easier to determine nonpoint
source (NPS) pollution effects on standing (lentic) water,
such as lakes or ponds, than for flowing (lotic) water, be-
cause standing water has a longer residence time (time that
water remains in the water body), giving pollutants time to
react.
Step 4. Proceed to the field sheets. If you are confident of your
"no" answers in part 2 of the above assessment, you need to
complete only those field sheets corresponding to the ques-
tions (pollutants) for which you marked either a "yes" or
"can't tell" answer. For example, there will not be an
animal waste problem if a particular farm or ranch has no
animals and the owner or operator does not import animal
waste. Obviously, in this case, none of the animal waste field
sheets (2A, 2B,, 2B 2 ) needs to be completed. If you are not
confident that any of the pollutants should be eliminated as
possible contributors of NPS pollution in a particular situa-
tion, complete all of the field sheets.
To learn how to use the sheets, it is recommended that you
go through all of them at least once, including those for pol-
lutants that have just a small possibility of affecting the
watercourse or water body. This will allow you to gain
familiarity with the sheets. With practice, using the sheets
will become second nature to you, and you will complete
them very quickly.
Filling Out the Field Sheets
TYPE A FIELD SHEETS
If upon completing part 2 of the watercourse (or water
body) assessment you determined that sediment is probably ad-
versely affecting the water, you should begin by focusing on the
water-based Field Sheet 1A: "Sediment Indicators for Receiving
Watercourses and Water Bodies (fig. 2-1)." Please take time
now to look at this sheet. Outlined below is how you should use
it. The sheet has answers circled in the way that should be done
in the field.
For each field sheet, you are asked to complete the blanks
at the top of the sheet which identify you, the evaluator, the
county. State, etc. Notice that in the left column. Field Sheet 1A
lists six different indicators or rating items with four possible
options for item number 3. You will examine one indicator at a
time and judge whether the water quality at this particular site
ranks as excellent, good, fair, or poor regarding that particular
indicator. Please note that these sheets should be completed in
the field at the water's edge and not in the office.
A standing water body is fairly easy to assess for nonpoint
source pollutant impacts. Flowing waters are not as easy to
evaluate. The best place to observe a receiving watercourse is
downstream of the pollutant sources. The exact point down-
stream from which to observe varies. If the water flow is very
rapid, you may have to make observations at a distance down-
stream where the flow is slower. This is especially true when
using the Nutrient Field Sheet (3A) because the effects from ex-
cessive nutrients often do not show in flowing waters until the
flow rate is slow.
In completing Field Sheet 1A, it would be best to station
yourself beside the stream (fig. 2-2) at the spot indicated by the
*A. If the stream is flowing rapidly, flushing away pollutants
very quickly, it may be necessary to walk downstream or up-
stream, observing indicators as you go. For ponds and lakes, it
is best to observe from a site that allows a bird's-eye view of
the whole water body, as well as from the water's edge.
The first indicator or ranking item on Field Sheet 1A for
sediment is turbidity. Note that an indication of nonpoint source
sediment pollution can most accurately be assessed only during
or immediately following a storm event. Ask yourself, "What
does the water look like at this particular site immediately after
a storm?" Do you see "conditions normally expected under
pristine conditions in your geographic region?" Is the water
"clear or very slightly muddy after a storm event" or are "ob-
jects visible at depths greater than 3 to 6 feet (depending on
water color)," such as described under the EXCELLENT head-
ing? Or do the descriptors under the GOOD category more
closely approximate conditions in your area; i.e., the water is
' 'what is expected for properly managed agricultural land in
your geographic region?" Is the water "a little muddy after a
storm event but clears rapidly" or are "objects visible at depths
between 1-1/2 to 3 feet (depending on water color)?" Are the
conditions at this site better described by the descriptors under
the headings of FAIR or POOR? Having read all four definitions
under each of the four ratings, decide which of the four BEST
describes the condition of the watercourse or body which you
are evaluating and circle the number in the bottom of the box
for that particular rating.
Follow the procedure outlined above for the turbidity
parameter with each of the other five rating items on the Sedi-
ment Field Sheet 1A. When you have completed the entire
sheet, add the circled numbers to obtain a total for the entire
field sheet. This total should fall into one of the four ranking
categories (excellent, good, fair, or poor) given at the very bot-
tom of each field sheet. For example, if the total score was
"8," record an "8/Poor" in the upper right-hand corner of the
field sheet by "Total Score/Rank." What this says is that the
water being evaluated is in a "poor" condition relative to
sediment— or that sediment is greatly impacting the water at this
site.
Design and Tailoring of the Indicator Guide Field Sheets To
Fit Your Region
Please note that the field sheets are designed to be used for
both flowing water and standing water across the entire United
States. To use the sheets throughout this exceedingly diverse ge-
ographic area and for flowing and standing waters, it was neces-
sary to include several descriptors per indicator (rating item) in
each of the four categories (excellent, good, fair, and poor).
These descriptors will rarely fit all given situations in a particu-
lar geographic area. In fact, some of the options within the same
rank might at first appear contradictory if you fail to distinguish
between standing and flowing water. Be especially careful when
reading these descriptors and be sure to select the option which
BEST or most closely matches the site specific conditions of the
water you are assessing.
If the condition of the water in your locality really falls be-
tween two options or has about half of the characteristics of two
options, you may "split" a score. You may want to add one or
two other descriptors to all four options of a rating item. These
10
Figure 2-1
Sediment Page i of 2
FIELD SHEET 1A: SEDIMENT
INDICATORS FOR RECEIVING WATERCOURSES AND WATER BODIES
Evaluaior
Water Body
Rating Item
ly Evaluated r&nOL
Excellent
Water Body Location
Good
County/ State DuL^fikifj j PA
Fair
Let. 40°
Urn. 76' 40'00'
Date
Total Score/Rank
Poor
(Circle one number among the four choices in each row whic
water body being evaluated If a condition has characteristics
h BEST describes the conditions
of two categories, you can "split 1
of the watercourse or
' a score.)
1 Turbidity
(best
observed
immediately
following a
storm event)
-- What is expected under
pristine conditions in
your region
-- Clear or very slightly
muddy after storm event
-- Obiects visible at depths
greater than 3 to 6 ft
(depending on water color)
-- OTHER
9
-- What is expected for
properly managed
agricultural land in
your region
— A little muddy after storm
event but clears rapidly.
-- Objects visible at depths
between 1 V4 to 3 ft
(depending on water color).
-- OTHER ^_
-- A considerable increase
in turbidity for your
region.
-- Considerable muddiness
after a storm event
Stays slightly muddy most
of the time.
-- Objects visible to depths
of Vi to 1 '/2 ft
(depending on water color).
- OTHER
3
-- A significant increase
in turbidity for your
region.
-- Very muddy — sediment
stays suspended most
of the time.
-- Objects visible to
depths less than Vi ft
(depending on water
color).
- OTHER
2. Bank
stability in
your viewing
area
-- Bank stabilized
-- No bank sloughing.
-- Bank armored with vegetation.
roots, brush, grass, etc
-- No exposed tree roots
-- OTHER
10
-- Some bank instability.
-- Occasional sloughing
-- Bank well-vegetated
-- Some exposed tree roots
- OTHER / « N
CD
-- Bank instability common.
-- Sloughing common.
-- Bank sparsely vegetated
-- Many exposed tree roots &
some fallen trees or
missing fence corners, etc.
-- Channel cross-section
becomes more U-shaped as
opposed to V-shaped
-- OTHER
4
-- Significant bank
instability.
-- Massive sloughing.
-- No vegetation on bank.
-- Many fallen trees.
eroded culverts, downed
fences, etc.
-- Channel cross-section
is U-shaped and stream
course or gully may be
meandering.
-- OTHER
1
3 Deposition
(Circle a number
in only A, B.
C. or D)
3A Rock or
gravel
511 era 1 1 19
OR
SELECT 3A OR :
A. For rock and gravel
bottom streams:
-- Less than 10% burial of
gravels, cobbles, and rocks
-- Pools essentially sediment
free.
9
SB OR 3C OR 3D
A. For rock and gravel
bottom streams
-- Between 10% & 25% burial
of gravels, cobbles. &
rocks.
— Pools with light dusting
of sediment
7
A For rock & gravel
bottom streams.
-- Between 25% and 50% burial
of gravels, cobbles and
rock
-- Pools with a heavy coating
of sediment
3
A For rock & gravel
bottom streams:
-- Greater than 50% burial
of gravels, cobbles and
rocks.
-- Few if any deep pools
present
1
3B Sandy bottom
streams
OR
B. For sandy streambeds:
-- Sand bars stable and com-
pletely vegetated
-- No mudcaps or "drapes"
(coverings of fine mud).
-- No mud plastering of banks;
exposed parent material.
-- No deltas
9
B For sandy streambeds
-- Sand bars essentially
stable and well, but not
completely, vegetated
-- Occasional mudcaps or
"drapes "
-- Some mud plastering of
banks.
-- Beginnings of delta
formation
7
B For sandy streambeds:
-- Sand bars unstable with
sparse vegetation.
-- Mudcaps or "drapes"
common
-- Considerable mud plastering
of banks.
-- Significant delta
formation
3
B For sandy streambeds:
-- Sand bars unstable and
actively moving with
no vegetation
-- Extensive mudcaps or
"drapes "
-- Extensive mud plastering
of banks
-- Extensive deltas.
1
3C Mud-bottom
streams
OR
C. For mud bottom streams:
-- Dark brown/black tanic-
colored water (due to presence
of lignins and tanins)
-- Abundant emergent rooted
aquatics or floating
vegetation
9
C For mud bottom streams:
-- Dark brown colored water
7
C. For mud bottom streams:
-- Medium brown water, muddy
bottom.
3
C. For mud bottom streams:
-- Light brown colored,
very muddy bottom.
1
11
Figure 2-1
Sediment Page 2 of 2
FIELD SHEET 1A: SEDIMENT, Continued
INDICATORS FOR RECEIVING WATERCOURSES AND WATER BODIES
Rating Item
Excellent
Good
Fair
Poor
3D. Ponds
-- Ponds essentially sediment
free.
-- No reduction in pond
storage capacity
-- Ponds with light
dusting of sediment.
-- Very little loss in pond
storage capacity.
-- Ponds with a heavy
coating of sediment.
-- Some measurable loss in
pond storage capacity.
-- Ponds filled with
sediment.
-- Significant reduction in
pool storage capacity.
-- OTHER
9
-- OTHER
7
-- OTHER
<D
-- OTHER
1
4. Type and
amount of
aquatic
vegetation &
condition of
periphyton
(plants,
growing on
other plants,
twigs,
stones, etc.)
-- Periphyton bright green to
black. Robust.
-- Abundant emergent rooted
aquatics or shoreline
vegetation.
-- In ponds, emergent rooted
aquatics (e g cattails,
arrowhead, pickerelweed,
etc.) present, but in
localized patches
-- OTHER
9
-- Periphyton pale green and
spindly
-- Emergent rooted aquatics
or shoreline vegetation
common.
-- In ponds, emergent rooted
aquatics common, but
confined to well-defined
band along shore
-- OTHER
0)
-- Periphyton very light
colored or brownish and
significantly dwarfed.
-- Sparse vegetation.
-- In ponds, emergent rooted
aquatics abundant in wide
bank, encroachment of dry
land species (grasses,
etc ) along shore
-- OTHER
5
-- No periphyton.
-- No vegetation
-- In ponds, emergent
rooted aquatics
predominant with heavy
encroachment of dry
land species.
-- OTHER
2
OPTIONAL:
5 Bottom
- Stable.
-- Slight fluctuation of
-- Considerable fluctuation
-- Significant fluctuation
stability of
-- Less than 5% of stream reach
streambed up or down
of streambed up or down
of streambed up or down
streams
has evidence of scouring or
(aggradation or degrada-
(aggradation or degrada-
(aggradation or degra-
silting
tion).
tion).
dation).
-- Between 5-30% of stream
-- Scoured or silted areas
-- More than 50% of stream
reach has evidence of
covering 30-50% of
reach affected by
scouring or silting.
evaluated stream reach.
-- Flooding more common than
usual.
-- More stream braiding than
usual for region
scouring or deposition.
-- Flooding very common.
-- Significantly more
stream braiding than
usual for region.
-- OTHER
-- OTHER
-- OTHER
-- OTHER
9
7
3
1
OPTIONAL:
6 Bottom
-- Intolerant species occur:
-- A mix of tolerants:
-- Many tolerants (snails,
-- Only tolerants or very
dwelling
mayflies, stonefiles,
shrimp, damselflies,
shrimp, damselflies,
tolerants: midges.
aquatic
caddisflies, water penny,
dragonflies, black flies.
dragon flies, black flies).
craneflies, horseflies,
organisms
riffle beetle and a mix
-- Intolerants rare.
-- Mainly tolerants and some
rat-tailed maggots, or
of tolerants.
-- Moderate diversity.
very tolerants.
none at all.
-- High diversity.
-- Intolerants rare.
-- Reduced diversity with
occasional upsurges of
tolerants, e.g. tube worms
and chironomids.
-- Very reduced diversity;
upsurges of very
tolerants common.
-- OTHER
-- OTHER
- OTHER
-- OTHER
9
7
3
1
1 . Add the circled Rating Item scores to get a total for the field sheet. 2^
2. Check the ranking for this site based on the total field score. (Check "excellent" if the score totals at least 32. Check "good" if the score falls between 21 and 31 , etc.)
Record your total score and rank (excellent good, etc.) in the upper right-hand corner of the field sheet. If a Rating Item is "fair" or "poor," complete Field Sheet 1 B.
RANKING
OPTIONAL RANKING
(with #5 OR #6)
OPTIONAL RANKING
(with #5 AND #6)
Excellent (32-37) |
Excellent (40-46) |
Excellent (48-55) |
Good (21-31) [ 24
Good (26-39) [
Good (31-47) [
Fair( 9-20) [
Fair (11 -25) |
Fair (13-30) [
Poor ( 8 or less) [
Poor (10 or less) [
Poor (12 or less) [
12
& complete "A"
sheets here
Sediment deposits cause shallow, wide watercourse
(braided condition)
13
other options apply to your particular geographic region and pre-
cisely define particular water quality situations. The word
"OTHER" that has been included in each block on each field
sheet means that you are free to adapt the field sheets to your
particular region or locale. Note also that if none of the descrip-
tors fit, you can resort to rankings relative to your geographic
region, such as the first ones given for the turbidity indicator on
Field Sheet 1A: Sediment.
One last point— A field sheet, like any other tool or instru-
ment, is only as good as the person using it. This is true of the
use of these field sheets. Those who take the time to learn how
to use the Water Quality Indicators Guide field sheets will
quickly become proficient in their use. Based on your experience
with the sheets, you will start to make judgments about water
quality and will develop an "intuitive feel" for the water's con-
dition. Rely on this judgment, even if it means altering the field
sheets.
Remember that the field sheets are only as good a tool as
you make them, especially concerning local conditions.
Given that water is severely polluted by sediment, how can
we know that the sediment is coming from agriculturally related
activities? If it is related to agriculture, how can we correct the
problem and improve water quality? To answer these questions,
turn to the "B" field sheets.
TYPE B FIELD SHEETS
Assumption. Before using the series "B" field sheets, it is
important to recognize that underlying the design of the overall
field analysis is the assumption that we are striving for water of
fishable/swimmable qualities— a goal established in the Federal
Water Pollution Control Act of 1972 and iterated in the 1987
Water Quality Act Amendments. While geographic and site-
specific conditions might cause us to accept a "good" rating in
some instances, we should not be satisfied with a water quality
rating of "fair" or "poor."
The "B" field sheets should be completed in all cases
where water quality ranks lower than what is expected regional-
ly under naturally occurring pristine conditions for any of the
five major agricultural pollutants. While in many cases the
pristine condition will receive an excellent rating, in other cases
naturally occurring conditions (geologic, topographic, etc.) pre-
vent the waters from ever being "excellent" (fishable/swimma-
ble). It is important to be able to distinguish between naturally
occurring and human-induced limitations to water use. It may be
difficult to determine what constitutes "pristine" conditions for
your area. If you do not know or are not sure, be sure to con-
sult with local experts in the water quality field. Call the SCS
State Office Water Quality Specialist or Biologist or the
specialists at the SCS National Technical Centers. Every State
has a water pollution control agency, although the names vary.
Specialists in these offices are most willing to assist. Additional-
ly, many local colleges and universities have environmental and
water quality experts who can be of great help.
The "B" field sheets allow an on-farm or on-ranch assess-
ment (fig. 2-3) of the five major agriculturally related contribu-
tors of pollution. Recommendations for improving problem
situations are given in the last column of each sheet under
"Practices from appendix E" (conservation and best manage-
ment practices, ref. B-6). Figure 2-3 is completed with circled
answers in the way that was done on Field Sheet 1A.
Other than the list of conservation and best management
practices (BMP's) in the last column, the format for the "B"
series is identical to that for the "A" series. Therefore, the
procedure outlined above for use with the "A" field sheets
should also be used in completing the "B" sheets.
The "B" sheets should be completed onsite. If a conserva-
tion plan exists for a given property, it would be helpful to have
it in hand while completing the "B" field sheets. A soil survey
of the area would also be helpful if you are not familiar with the
land tract. You may want to briefly reconnoiter the tract of
land. Previous experience with this particular property owner or
manager and prior knowledge of the property will prove in-
valuable.
Based on your previous knowledge of the land or your re-
cent reconnaissance, define a "representative" field which
drains into a watercourse or water body you have judged to be
polluted by use of the "A" field sheets. That is, choose an area
large enough to give an appropriate numerical weighting to both
properly and poorly managed areas. Then proceed to complete
the appropriate "B" field sheet relative to the field that you just
defined. While a sample field size should be representative, it is
recommended to select for your observation site a location
where you could expect to find a pollutant. For example, if you
were assessing nutrients or pesticides, you might stand in the
middle of the row crops, as shown in figure 2-2, where the B*
is indicated. If you were interested in sediment pollution, you
might position yourself in or near a recently plowed field.
If scores for any of the indicators (rating items) were ranked
less than "good" or "excellent," you will want to consider
recommending to the property owner or user one or more of the
conservation or BMP's listed in the right-hand column of the
sheet for that particular rating item. The practices listed are by
no means exhaustive and may not be entirely suitable to your lo-
cality. Therefore, you will need to evaluate the suggested prac-
tices, selecting those that you consider to be appropriate to the
given situation and adding others that may be lacking.
14
Figure 2-3
Sediment
FIELD SHEET 1 B: SEDIMENT
INDICATORS FOR CROPLAND. HAYLAND OR PASTURE
Ut. 40' 37' JO"
Ion. 76* 40' OO-
Evaluator
Field Evaluated WilSOA
Rating Item
Excellent
Field Location _
Good
. County/StateDan^K'n, PA
L yk £A S,PA
Fair
Date is Apr. 83
Total Score/ Rank3£6fl<?flt
Poor
Practices
from
Appendix E
(Circle one number among the four choices in each row which BEST describes the conditions of the field or
area being evaluated. If a condition has characteristics of two categories, you can "split" a score.)
1. Erosion
Potential
2 Runoff
Potential
Not significant
Less than T (tolerance); little
sheet, rill, or furrow erosion.
No gullies.
OTHER
10
Low:
Very flat to flat terrain (0-
0.5% slope)
Runoff curve number (RCN)
61 - 70
Dry. low rainfall (less than 20"
Even, gentle impact
(scattered shower-type)
rainfall
OTHER
10
Some erosion evident.
About T; some sheet, rill,
or furrow erosion.
Very few gullies.
OTHER
Moderate:
Flat to gently sloping (0 5-
2.0% slope).
RCN 71 - 80.
Semidry (20-30").
Even, gentle to moderate
intensity rainfall.
OTHER
Moderate erosion
T to 2T.
Gullies or furrows from
heavy storm events
obvious.
OTHER
3
Considerable:
Gently to moderately
sloping (2.0-5.0% slope).
RCN 81 - 90.
Semiwet (30-40").
Even to uneven intense
rainfall.
OTHER
Heavy erosion.
More than 2T.
Many gullies or furrows
& presence of critical
erosion areas
OTHER
High:
Moderately sloping to
steep terrain (greater than
5%).
RCN greater than 90
Wet (more than 40").
Intense uneven rain-
fall, especially in seasons
when soil is exposed
OTHER
1.3,5.7,8.
9.10.11.
15.16.17,
18.19,20.
21.22.23.
24.25,26,
2729.30.
31 .32.33.
37,38,40.
45.46.54.
61,62.65.
69.70.73.
75.79.85.
87,95.97.
99.102
6.9.88,95
3. Filtering
-- Intervening vegetation
-- Intervening vegetation
-- Intervening vegetation
-- Cropping from less
5.1825.
effect or
between cropland & water-
between cropland &
between cropland &
than 50 ft up to
27.79.107
sedimentation
course greater than
watercourse 100 to 200 ft
watercourse 50 to 100 ft
water's edge
potential of
200 ft
-- Type of intervening vege-
-- Type of intervening vege-
-- Type of intervening
a vegetated
-- Type of intervening vegeta-
tation grazed woodland.
tation high density
vegetation low density
buffer or
tion ungrazed woodland.
brush, or herbaceous
cropland
cropland or bare soil.
water/sedi-
brush, or herbaceous plants
plants or range
-- Water & sediment control
-- No water & sediment
ment collect-
-- Water & sediment control
-- Water & sediment control
basins poorly installed &
control basins.
ing basin
basins properly installed &
basins properly installed.
poorly maintained.
maintained
but poorly maintained
-- OTHER
8
-- OTHER
- OTHER
-- OTHER
6
o
c
4 Resource
-- Excellent management
-- Good management
-- Fair management
-- Poor management
Practices
management
-- RMS's always used as
-- Most (80%) of the needed
-- About 50% of the needed
-- Few. if any. needed
same as
systems
needed
RMS's installed
RMS's installed
RMS's installed
Rating
(RMS's)
-- Cropping confined to
-- Cropping not confined
Item #1
on whole farm
proper land class
to proper classes.
(combined
value for all
agricultural
-- OTHER
-- OTHER
o
-- OTHER
-- OTHER
areas
9
3
5. Potential
LOW:
MODERATE:
CONSIDERABLE:
HIGH:
See animal
for ground
-- Soils rich to very rich in
-- Soils rich to moderate
-- Soils moderate to low
-- Soils low to very low
waste.
water con-
organic matter (greater than
in organic matter (3.0 to
in organic matter
in organic matter
nutrients.
tamination
3.0%).
1 .5%).
(1 .5 to 0.5%).
(less than 0.5%)
pesticide,
-- Slow to very slow percolation
-- Slow to moderate percola-
-- Moderate to rapid
-- Rapid percolation in
& salt "B"
in light textured soils such
tion in clay loams or
percolation in silty
coarse textured loamy
Field
as clays, silty or sandy clays.
silts.
loams, loams, or
sands or sands
Sheets for
or silty clay loams.
-- Perched water table
silts.
-- In protected bedrock
practices
-- Perched water table present
present
-- In protected bedrock
areas, well depth is
-- In protected bedrock areas
-- In protected bedrock
areas, well depth is
less than 15 ft
(50 ft of soil & shale cap),
areas, well depth is
15-29 ft
:-- In protected bedrock
well depth is 75-100 ft.
30-74 ft.
-- In protected bedrock
areas overlain with
-- In protected bedrock areas
-- In protected bedrock
areas overlain with 50 ft
50 ft of sand or
overlain with 50 ft. of sand
areas overlain with 50 ft
of sand or gravel, well
gravel, well depth is
or gravel, well depth is
of sand or gravel, well
depth is 50 - 99 ft.
less than 50 ft.
greater than 1 50 ft
depth is 100-149 ft
-- In shallow bedrock areas.
:-- In shallow bedrock
.-- In shallow bedrock areas (25-
-- In shallow bedrock areas.
well depth is 25-49 ft
areas, well depth is
50 ft. soil & shale cap), well
well depth is 50-199 ft
-- In Karst areas, well
less than 25 ft
depth greater than 200 ft.
-- In Karst areas, well depth
depth is 100-499 ft
.-- In Karst areas, well
:— In Karst areas, well depth is
is 500-999 ft
depth is less than
greater than 1,000 ft., if
100 ft
aquifier is "confined."
-- OTHER
:-- OTHER
-- OTHER
CD
-- OTHER
9
6
1 Add the circled Rating Item scores to get a total for the field sheet
2 Check the ranking for this site based on the total field score Check "excellent" if the score totals at least 40 Check
etc Record your total score and rank (excellent, good, etc ) in the upper right-hand corner of the field sheet. If a Rati
the right-hand column to help remedy the conditions.
RANKING Excellent (40-46) [ ] Good (26-39) [ 30 ] Fair (10-25)
TOTAL [ JO }
"good" if the score falls between 26 and 39.
ng Item is "fair" or "poor," find the practices in
Poor (9 or less) [
15
Chapter 3
Ecology of Freshwater Systems
To assess properly whether or not a watercourse or water
body is polluted or potentially could become polluted, you will
need to know the basic ecological principles covered in this
chapter.
Freshwater systems can be divided into lentic (standing) and
lotic (flowing) water. Lotic systems are less prone to stress from
sediment, nutrients, and pesticides because the running water
flushes away pollutants. Lentic bodies, such as ponds and lakes,
are more prone to pollutant stress because they retain many pol-
lutants within their system. Impounded or dammed rivers flush
out pollutants at rates which are between those for lakes and
free-flowing rivers.
Lentic Systems (Lakes or Ponds)
The naturally occurring geologic process whereby lakes fill
with sediment and eventually become dry land is termed "lake
succession." Sediment is deposited concentrically from the outer
edges to the center of the basin. Thus, a transect from the
shoreline to the lake center crosses successively younger geolog-
ic sediment deposits. This concentric or horizontal zonation of
sediment is reflected in concentric bands of vegetation.
Rooted aquatic plants progressively encroach toward the
center from the shoreline. Large plants (macrophytes), such as
cattails, alligator weed, and smartweed, generally occur in a
band along the water's edge. Floating, leaved, emergent plants,
such as waterlilies and American lotus root, (fig. B-7; see ap-
pendix B) occur in the bottom muds at shallow depths (0-5
feet). These plants are flanked on the inside (toward the
lake/pond center) by a band of submerged rooted weeds, such as
watermilfoil, coontail. and pondweed (fig. B-7). The submerged
plants usually grow to a depth of about 10 feet, depending upon
wave action and turbidity of the water. The region of open
water is inhabited by nonrooting plants of two types,
(1) microscopic floaters or plankton species (fig. B-l to B-6),
and (2) macroscopic floating species, such as duckweed (ref.
3-1, 3-2).
Associated with lake succession is eutrophication or lake en-
richment by nutrients. The nutrient load of a water body is not
directly observable. However, since nutrients stimulate plant
growth, the biomass (total weight) of lake or pond aquatic vege-
tation can serve as an indirect indicator of nutrient levels. Since
plants serve as food for animals, an abundance of plants often
means there will be an abundance of fish and other animals. The
biomass of plants and animals living in a given water body area
in a unit of time is called "biological productivity."
Lentic (standing) waters are classified in biological produc-
tivity terms as: (1) "oligotrophic" (young, low productivity);
(2) "mesotrophic" (middle aged, medium productivity); or
(3) "eutrophic" (old. high productivity) (ref. 3-3).
Oligotrophic lakes are those which are young, geologically
speaking, or are located in an infertile watershed. They are
characterized by low levels of nutrients and consequently low
levels of biological productivity. Having a low volume of plants
(phytoplankton) contained in a large volume of water, these
water bodies appear crystal clear. Since there is not much plant
food at the base of the food chain, top predators, such as prized
sport fish, are not abundant. Lake Superior, Lake Tahoe. and
Crater Lake are examples of oligotrophic lakes. In these deep
blue, clear waters fish can be seen at considerable depths from
the surface.
Mesotrophic lakes are the so called "middle-aged" lakes
which have a greater amount of nutrients per unit volume of
water compared to oligotrophic lakes. They are more productive
and have quite an abundance of organisms that are high on the
food chain. For example, a 50 million pound catch of the highly
edible lake trout, whitefish. blue-pike, and walleye from Lake
Erie was recorded in 1920. Many of the lakes, bays and estu-
aries prized for their fisheries are mesotrophic (ref. 3-4, 3-5).
Eutrophic lakes have great productivity and high nutrient
turnover. Water quality in these lakes with excessive nutrients
can deteriorate so much that the lakes become unfit for human
use. Human-induced (cultural) eutrophication may result in un-
sightly scums of surface algae, dead fish, and weeds washed up
in mounds along the shoreline. The noxious smell of rotten eggs
may result from hydrogen sulfide bubbling to the surface from
the decaying organic matter.
The process of natural versus human-induced eutrophication
and the presence of eutrophication indicators are discussed in
more detail in Chapter 5.
Lotic Systems (Streams or Rivers)
As with plants and animals, watercourses progress through a
natural life cycle from youth to old age. A young stream flows
in a fairly straight path and cuts deeply into its parent soil
material. In hilly terrains, it produces a narrow V-shaped valley
with steep-sloped banks. As the stream matures, its path begins
to meander, cutting into adjacent slopes and widening the valley.
By old age. the stream has created a broad V-shaped valley and
meanders back and forth within a broad flood plain (ref. 3-6).
Thus, a stream is not static, but is a delicately balanced sys-
tem, ever changing in response either to natural events or to hu-
man activities. In a well-balanced "ideal" condition a stream
has smooth, gentle banks— well vegetated banks free from ero-
sion or failure— and a channel bed that is neither scouring nor
building up with sediment. However, this situation seldom oc-
curs in nature. Instead, we find streams in a continual state of
adjustment, responding to the environment. It is not uncommon
to find in riparian (stream bank) areas, cattle-grazing, fallen
trees, or debris. Fallen trees or debris can deflect water from its
main course, causing it to undercut the bank and lose vegetation.
Protective vegetative cover in the watershed may be lost as land
is converted to cropland or to urban development. The water-
course's adjustment to these ecological disturbances usually oc-
curs not just at the site of the disturbance, but in domino-like
fashion along a significant stretch downstream from the activities
(ref. 3-7).
A watercourse adjusts to environmental effects by changing
the shape of its bed. banks, or both. In an unbalanced condition,
the bed will be either degrading (being scoured out) or aggrad-
ing (depositing excess sediment). Either situation is unstable and
can lead to significantly adverse conditions. For example, if the
bank toe is eroding, bank failure can result. If the streambed is
rising, channel capacity will be reduced. In the next flood, the
stream will attempt to stabilize and restore itself to its original
capacity by scouring out the bed and in many cases eroding the
banks as well (ref. 3-7).
Watercourse bottom materials (substrates) will vary depend-
ing upon regional geology and topography. In steep terrain,
swiftly flowing waters often cut deep channels and keep the
streambed scoured of sediments. By contrast, slowly flowing
streams in level terrain are usually characterized by shallow beds
17
and substrates composed mainly of sediment. Exceptions exist to
the above situation, reflecting the geology of a region. For ex-
ample, there are some high-velocity watercourses possessing fine
bottom materials and some low-velocity watercourses with
coarse bottom materials.
In general, stream flow or velocity varies according to the
shape, size, slope, and roughness of the channel. Velocities
range from slow (0.1 m/sec or 0.3 ft/sec); to moderate
(0.25-0.5 m/sec or 0.8-1.6 ft/sec); to swift (1.0 m/sec or 3.2
ft/sec), depending on channel characteristics. Stream velocity de-
termines in large measure the type of bottom materials present,
which in turn influence the kinds and number of organisms that
can live on the streambed. Erosion of sand and gravel river beds
occurs at velocities greater than 1.7 m/sec (5.6 ft/sec). Gravel
settles at velocities ranging from 1.2-1.7 m/sec (3.9-5.6 ft/sec).
Sand settles at velocities of 0.25-1.2 m/sec (0.8-3.9 ft/sec), and
silt and organics deposit when velocities drop to 0.2 m/sec (0.7
ft /sec) and less (ref 3-8).
Biology of Streams
Watercourses having cobble and gravel beds (i.e., those that
are degrading or eroding) support the greatest diversity of inver-
tebrate life. The cobble or gravel bottom is stable and provides
hiding places that bottom-dwelling animals need for protection.
Usually, these streams have alternating pools (deep, slow-
moving water) and riffles (shallow, fast-moving water). The
greatest insect production occurs in riffles with rocks of 6 in. to
12 in. on a side (ref. 3-9).
The presence of larval insect species, such as stoneflies,
caddisflies, and mayflies in riffle areas of cobble/gravel bottom
streams, is an indicator of "clean" water. Although the
presence of these species indicates "clean" waters, absence of
these species does not always mean polluted water. There are
many reasons why the species might be absent. For example,
they may have been exterminated by a recent flood or drought
and not have had time to recolonize. Or recolonization may be
impossible due to limited flight range of the insect or simply be-
cause there may be no individuals available to recolonize the lo-
cation. No single insect or other invertebrate by itself can
indicate pollution, but a group or association of indicator organ-
isms can indicate the presence or absence of pollution (ref.
3-10). Refer to appendix A for biological index methods.
Aggrading or depositing streams with silt or mud bottoms
support invertebrate species, such as tube-building worms, bur-
rowing mayflies, "blood worm" midges (chironomids), mussels,
and clams. The deepest parts of very large rivers, such as the
Mississippi and its large tributaries, support few, if any, bottom-
dwelling species because their silty bottoms are unstable.
Intermediate between cobble/gravel and mud/silt streambeds
are sandy beds. Sandy bottoms support very few, if any, inver-
tebrate species because shifting sands provide few stable surfaces
to which organisms can attach.
Watercourses with slow, relatively clear waters or pools
support the greatest amount of plant growth. Plants common to
these waters include submerged periphyton species, such as algal
or vegetative masses growing on bottom substrate materials, on
twigs, or on larger rooted aquatic plants. Rooted aquatics can be
either submergent species, such as Elodea (American water-
weed), or emergents, such as the broad leaved species of
Potamogeton (pondweed) (fig. B-7) and Nasturtium (watercress).
These species root in the fine sediments of pools or along
stream margins (ref. 3-1).
The kind and amount of aquatic vegetation in watercourses
or bodies depend on a variety of factors, including flow rate,
bottom type, sunlight amount, nutrient levels, and water depth.
While the amounts of nutrients coming from agricultural lands
might be significant, any pollutional effects from the nutrients
might be minimized or "masked" by too little sunlight reaching
aquatic plants for photosynthesis. Reduced sunlight can be
caused by many factors, including heavy siltation of the water,
dense vegetative canopy over watercourses, depth of water, etc.
Watercourses may be classified on the basis of the type of
fishery they support. There are cold water, cool water, and
warm water fisheries. Cold water fish include salmonid species,
such as trout and salmon (fig. B-12), which are members of the
trout family. These species occur in well oxygenated streams
that have a swift current. Trout grow best in waters between 50
and 65 degrees Farenheit. They are insect-feeders, eating species
such as mayflies and stoneflies.
The smallmouth bass (fig. B-12) is typical of cool water
fisheries and is found in lower stream reaches that are marginal
for trout. The bass prefer a habitat of riffles and deep pools.
Home range is normally restricted to one pool where the bass
feed on insects or crayfish flushed out by turtles and bottom-
feeding fishes.
Where water temperatures are higher, warm water species,
such as largemouth bass, crappie, bluegill, and catfish are found
(fig. B-12). The largemouth bass is a predator that feeds on
almost any animal which swims or falls in the water (fish,
crayfish, large insects, frogs, snakes, mice). It is one of the
most popular warm water fish in North America. These fish are
mainly invertebrate eaters except for the catfish, which eats both
plants and animals (ref. 3-11, 3-12). See appendix B for fish il-
lustrations and descriptions.
18
Chapter 4
Sediment
In the United States today, watersheds are adversely affected
by agriculturally related pollutants. Sediment, probably the most
common and most easily recognized of the nonpoint source pol-
lutants, ranks first in quantity among pollutants contributed by
agriculture to receiving waters. Cropland erosion accounts for
40 to 50 percent of the approximately 1.5 billion tons of sedi-
ment that reaches the Nation's waterways each year. Streambank
erosion accounts for another 26 percent (ref. 4-1). The amount
of sediment eroding from agricultural areas is directly related to
land use— the more intensive the use. the greater the erosion.
For example, in a given locality more sediment erodes from row-
crop fields than from pastures or woodlands.
Sediment lost from agricultural sites varies significantly with
the presence or absence of management practices. Figure 4-1
shows that considerably more sediment is lost from agricultural
land in row crops without management practices than in row
crops with management practices. The least amount of sediment
is lost from agricultural lands that have conservation cropping
systems, i.e., practices such as cover crops and conservation til-
lage (ref. 4-2).
Sediment Indicators for Receiving Waters
1. Turbiditv (Refer to Field Sheet 1A, rating item I, figure
4-2.)
To assess sediment pollution, it is necessary to observe
receiving waters during or immediately following a storm
event. Sediment-laden runoff, whether from overland flow or
bank erosion, muddies receiving waters, and turbidity in the
form of suspended solid matter increases. As turbidity in-
creases, light penetration decreases, making objects less visi-
ble at greater depths.
If the receiving waters appear turbid, the cause must be
determined. Problem sources may be overland flow paths or
channels that drain from fields and pastures into receiving
waters. The muddier (thicker and denser) the overland flows,
the greater the sediment load. Evidence of bank erosion
should be noted.
If receiving waters are turbid, but runoff water from
overland flow is essentially clear (e.g., runoff from a densely
vegetated pasture), and there appears to be no bank erosion
Figure 4-1
Sediment Losses Related to Land Use Practices.
2200
Suspended sediment load
(pounds/acre/ year)
4400 6600
8800
Land use
Low density
residential
-<l Agricultural land in
rotation crops
Agricultural land in row crops
with management practices
Medium density
residential
Agricultural land in row crops
without management practices
Areas under
development
Source: Wisconsin Department of Natural Resources. Ref. 4-2.
19
Figure 4-2
Sediment Page 1 of 2
FIELD SHEET 1A: SEDIMENT
INDICATORS FOR RECEIVING WATERCOURSES AND WATER BODIES
Evaluator County/State Date
Water Body Evaluated Water Body Location Total Score/Rank
Rating Item Excellent Good Fair Poor
(Circle one number among the four choices in each row which BEST describes the conditions of the watercourse or
water body being evaluated. If a condition has characteristics of two categories, you can "split" a score.)
1. Turbidity
(best
observed
immediately
following a
storm event)
-- What is expected under
pristine conditions in
your region
-- Clear or very slightly
muddy after storm event.
-- Objects visible at depths
greater than 3 to 6 ft.
(depending on water color)
-- OTHER
9
-- What is expected for
properly managed
agricultural land in
your region.
-- A little muddy after storm
event but clears rapidly.
-- Objects visible at depths
between 1 Vi to 3 ft
(depending on water color).
-- OTHER
7
-- A considerable increase
in turbidity for your
region.
-- Considerable muddiness
after a storm event.
Stays slightly muddy most
of the time.
-- Objects visible to depths
Of Vl to 1 '/2 ft.
(depending on water color).
-- OTHER
3
-- A significant increase
in turbidity for your
region.
-- Very muddy — sediment
stays suspended most
of the time.
-- Objects visible to
depths less than '/z ft.
(depending on water
color).
-- OTHER
2 Bank
stability in
your viewing
area
-- Bank stabilized.
-- No bank sloughing.
-- Bank armored with vegetation,
roots, brush, grass, etc.
-- No exposed tree roots.
-- OTHER
10
-- Some bank instability.
-- Occasional sloughing.
-- Bank well-vegetated.
-- Some exposed tree roots
-- OTHER
7
-- Bank instability common.
-- Sloughing common.
-- Bank sparsely vegetated
-- Many exposed tree roots &
some fallen trees or
missing fence corners, etc.
-- Channel cross-section
becomes more U-shaped as
opposed to V-shaped
-- OTHER
4
-- Significant bank
instability
-- Massive sloughing.
-- No vegetation on bank.
-- Many fallen trees,
eroded culverts, downed
fences, etc
-- Channel cross-section
is U-shaped and stream
course or gully may be
meandering.
-- OTHER
1
3. Deposition
(Circle a number
in only A, B,
C, or D)
3A. Rock or
gravel
streams
OR
SELECT 3A OR C
A. For rock and gravel
bottom streams:
-- Less than 10% burial of
gravels, cobbles, and rocks.
-- Pools essentially sediment
free.
9
IB OR 3C OR 3D
A. For rock and gravel
bottom streams:
-- Between 10% & 25% burial
of gravels, cobbles. &
rocks.
-- Pools with light dusting
of sediment.
7
A. For rock & gravel
bottom streams:
-- Between 25% and 50% burial
of gravels, cobbles and
rock.
-- Pools with a heavy coating
of sediment.
3
A. For rock & gravel
bottom streams:
-- Greater than 50% burial
of gravels, cobbles and
rocks
-- Few if any deep pools
present.
1
3B Sandy bottom
streams
OR
B. For sandy streambeds:
-- Sand bars stable and com-
pletely vegetated
-- No mudcaps or "drapes"
(coverings of fine mud).
-- No mud plastering of banks,
exposed parent material.
-- No deltas.
9
B. For sandy streambeds:
-- Sand bars essentially
stable and well, but not
completely, vegetated.
-- Occasional mudcaps or
"drapes "
-- Some mud plastering of
banks.
-- Beginnings of delta
formation.
7
B. For sandy streambeds:
-- Sand bars unstable with
sparse vegetation
-- Mudcaps or "drapes"
common.
-- Considerable mud plastering
of banks.
-- Significant delta
formation
3
B. For sandy streambeds:
-- Sand bars unstable and
actively moving with
no vegetation.
-- Extensive mudcaps or
"drapes."
-- Extensive mud plastering
of banks.
-- Extensive deltas.
1
3C. Mud-bottom
streams
OR
C. For mud bottom streams:
-- Dark brown/black tanic-
colored water (due to presence
of lignins and tanins).
-- Abundant emergent rooted
aquatics or floating
vegetation.
9
C. For mud bottom streams:
-- Dark brown colored water.
7
C. For mud bottom streams:
-- Medium brown water, muddy
bottom
3
C. For mud bottom streams:
-- Light brown colored,
very muddy bottom.
1
20
Figure 4-2
Sediment Page 2 of 2
FIELD SHEET 1A SEDIMENT. Continued
INDICATORS FOR RECEIVING WATERCOURSES AND WATER BODIES
Rating Item
Excellent
Good
Fair
Poor
3D Ponds
-- Ponds essentially sediment
— "UflUb Willi liyill
t (JIIUo Willi a llcd»y
" unua iintrtj wun
free
UUoUliy Ul MCI II-
LUd 11 11 y u 1 icu unci h.
scU 1 1 1 It; I 1 L
-- No reduction in pond
vtriy nine lUbo 111 ljlmiu
OUIDc 'McdbUidU'C lUoo 111
-- Significant reduction in
storage capacity
biui dye i/d^/dLuy
puui blUldytr UdpdL'ly
OTHER
Q
-- OTHER
7
-- OTHER
3
-- OTHER
4. Type and
Periphyton bright green to
-- Periphyton pale green and
-- Periphyton very light
-- No periphyton.
amount of
black Robust
spindly.
colored or brownish and
-- No vegetation
aquatic
Abundant emergent rooted
-- Emergent rooted aquatics
significantly dwarfed
-- In ponds, emergent
vegetation &
aquatics or shoreline
or shoreline vegetation
-- Sparse vegetation.
rooted aquatics
condition of
vegetation
common.
In ponds, emergent rooted
predominant with heavy
periphyton
-- In ponds, emergent rooted
In ponds, emergent rooted
aquatics abundant in wide
encroachment of dry
{plants.
aquatics (e g cattails.
aquatics common, but
Udlm Bflwl vadllllCI II Ul U'y
land species
growing on
arrowhead, pickerelweed,
rAnfmoH tr* uloI 1 - r\ of i norl
lui H 1 1 icu iu w tr 1 1 u tr 1 1 ' ' "<J
idiiu oftrccD yi d33C3
other plants,
etc ) present, but in
band along shore
etc J along shore
twigs.
localized patches.
stones, etc.)
-- U 1 Men
OTHER
OTHER
-- OTHER
A
y
j
c.
e
OPTIONAL.
5. Bottom
-- Stable
-- Slight fluctuation of
-- Considerable fluctuation
-- Significant fluctuation
stability of
-- Less than 5% of stream reach
streambed up or down
of streambed up or down
of streambed up or down
streams
has evidence of scouring or
(aggradation or degrada-
(aggradation or degrada-
(aggradation or degra-
silting
tion).
tion)
dation).
Between 5-30°'o of stream
-- Scoured or silted areas
More than 50°^ of stream
reach has evidence of
covering 30-50^> of
reach affected by
scouring or silting.
evaluated stream reach.
scouring or deposition.
Eln^Hmn mf\ra ff\fr\ m /■"* r\ than
— r IUUUIIiU fllUlc CUIIHilLMl lllall
Flooding very common.
usual.
-- Significantly more
— Wore stream braiding than
stream braiding than
iiciiail f/tr roninn
usual lui 1 cyiui 1
iiCiiqI frtr ronii^n
usual i\j> itrynjii
-- OTHER
a
-- OTHER
7
-- OTHER
-- OTHER
1
OPTIONAL
6 Bottom
-- Intolerant species occur
A mix of tolerants:
-- Many tolerants (snails.
-- Only tolerants or very
dwelling
mayflies, stonefiles.
shrimp, damselflies.
shrimp, damselflies.
tolerants: midges.
aquatic
caddisflies. water penny,
dragonfhes, black flies.
dragon flies, black flies).
craneflies. horseflies,
organisms
nffle beetle and a mix
-- Intolerants rare.
-- Mainly tolerants and some
rat-tailed maggots, or
of tolerants.
-- Moderate diversity.
very tolerants
none at all
-- High diversity.
-- Intolerants rare.
-- Very reduced diversity;
-- Reduced diversity with
upsurges of very
occasional upsurges of
tolerants common.
tolerants. e g tube worms
and chrionomids
-- OTHER
-- OTHER
-- OTHER
-- OTHER
9
7
3
1
1 Add the circled Rating Item scores to get a total for the field sheet '
2 Check the ranking for this site based on the total field score. Check "excellent" if the score totals at least 32. Check "good" if the score falls between 21 and 31 , etc
Record your total score and rank (excellent, good, etc ) in the upper right-hand corner of the field sheet If a Rating Item is "fair" or "poor." complete Field Sheet 1 B.
RANKING
OPTIONAL RANKING
(with #5 OR #6)
OPTIONAL RANKING
(with #5 AND #6)
Excellent (32-37) [
Excellent (40-46) [
Excellent (48-55) [
] Good (21 -31 )[
] Good (26-39) [
) Good (31 -47) [
Fair( 9-20) [
Fair (1 1 -25) [
Fair (13-30) [
Poor ( 8 or less) [
Poor (10 or less) (
Poor (12 or less) [
21
(e.g., banks well vegetated), the turbidity may be due to
stirred-up mud deposits of the stream bottom. This is com-
mon in regions characterized by muddy-bottom streams. In
this situation, the regional environmental quality would be
considered "excellent" despite the muddiness because condi-
tions match what is expected under pristine conditions in that
particular geographic region.
2. Bank stability (Refer to Field Sheet 1A, rating item 2, figure
4-2.)
To determine if streambanks are contributing sediment to
receiving waters, look for the following indicators:
• Evidence of bank instability — cracks, rills, and gullies.
• Evidence of bank sloughing or chunks of soil dropping
into the stream.
• Extent of vegetative protective cover or "armoring."
• Extent of exposed tree roots, fallen trees, missing fence
posts, etc.
• The appearance of the channel in cross-section (adapted
from Keown, ref. 3-7).
3. Deposition (Refer to Field Sheet 1A, rating item 3, figure
4-2.)
Watercourses are distinguished on the basis of their type
of bottom substrate — rock, gravel, sand, or mud. Deposition
occurs when water flow is insufficient to remove sediment
entering receiving waters.
Note that this field sheet gives four choices for deposi-
tion. Items 3A, 3B, and 3C refer to streams or flowing
waters, while item 3D refers to ponds or stationary waters.
Indicators of deposition vary with the type of bottom
substrate. In rock and gravel streams, the relative degrees of
burial of gravels, cobbles, and rocks in riffle (fast-flowing,
shallow) areas are important as well as the thickness of sedi-
ment coatings in pool areas (see item 3A). For sandy stream-
banks the condition and stability of sandbars and the presence
and frequency of mudcaps (drapes), mud plastering, and delta
formation are important (see rating item 3B). For mud-
bottom streams, water color is especially important (rating
item 3C). In this case, it is essential to be familiar with
waters of your region. You can gain familiarity with the
"normal" color of local streams quickly by several onsite
visits before and immediately following a storm event. Final-
ly, indicators of pond degradation are thickness of the sedi-
ment coat and the relative degree of reduction in permanent
pond storage capacity (see rating item 3D).
4. Type and amount of aquatic vegetation and condition of
periphyton (plants growing on other plants, twigs, stones,
etc.) (Refer to Field Sheet 1A, rating item 4, figure 4-2).
In those waters where aquatic vegetation is typical of that
expected under pristine conditions in your geographic region,
sediment load may become great enough to interfere with
plant growth and reproduction. For example, periphyton
(small aquatic plants that grow on submerged plants, twigs,
stones, etc.) may create a "dusting" or coating on aquatic
plants, reducing their photosynthesis. Sediment (silt) may also
accumulate on aquatic plants and add to the poor environ-
mental conditions. Aquatic plants may appear to be paler
green and more spindly than the robust green condition that
is found where light penetration is maximal. Where there is
considerable sediment deposition, aquatic plants may never
reach full size and are not able to reproduce. Eventually, as
occurred in the Chesapeake Bay, an entire population of
aquatic plants may smother and die.
5. Bottom stability of watercourses (Refer to Field Sheet 1A,
rating item 5, figure 4-2).
In instances where historical records are available, bot-
tom stability might serve as an indicator of sediment pollu-
tion. For example, aggradation (raising of streambeds) is an
indicator of sediment deposition. Deposition is sometimes
greatly accelerated by logjams or other stream obstructions.
These obstructions can slow water to an extent that sediment
that usually is flushed through the system has time to settle
out. Given enough time, this type of deposition can lead to a
significant rise in the streambed with a number of attending
consequences. One consequence is that the flow becomes
shallow and spreads out over a wide area, resulting in in-
creased flooding and increased stream "braiding," the forma-
tion of many small rivulets. It may also result in the death of
economically valuable bottomland hardwood trees. In such in-
stances, it may be necessary to dredge or dynamite a channel
to restore water flow to its original depth. An increased need
for dredging is a good indicator that sediment deposition has
increased (ref. 4-3).
22
Chapter 5
Nutrients
Natural and Human-Induced (Cultural) Eutrophication
Eutrophication is a natural aging process that occurs as a
lake or pond becomes increasingly enriched with nutrients. The
rate of eutrophication varies, depending upon the relative fertili-
ty of the watershed. It proceeds most slowly in big lakes situat-
ed in relatively infertile watersheds and most quickly in small
ponds in fertile surroundings.
Eutrophication can be natural or human-induced (fig. 5-1).
Eutrophication. resulting from human activity, such as fertilizing
fields or converting forest or pasture to cropland, is termed
human-induced (cultural) to distinguish it from natural eutrophi-
cation. In most instances, the rate of human-induced eutrophica-
tion is many times faster than the natural process. For example,
in a span of about 25 years (1950-1975). Lake Erie aged to
about the same degree under human influences as would have
occurred in 15.000 years naturally (ref. 5-1). Today, some 75
percent of the large lakes in the United States are considered to
be eutrophic (ref. 5-2).
Eutrophication rates are increased by agricultural inputs of
nutrients— phosphorus and/or nitrogen. Usually, these inputs
come from either fertilizer runoff or erosion from fields or
pastures.
Indicators of Excessive Nutrient Input for Receiving Waters
***LIMITA TIONS OF NUTRIENT FIELD SHEET 3 A ***
Nutrient indicators may not be perceptible in certain
watercourses, especially if flow is 0.5 feet per second or greater or
if sediment "masks" the effects of nutrient enrichment. Appendix
A contains a procedure ("Floating Body Technique") that can be
used to obtain water flow rate velocity. With rapid water flow, a
watercourse could be rated "good" or "excellent" according to the
3A Nutrient Field Sheet (fig. 5-2). when in fact it could contain
high nutrient levels.
In the above situations it may be advantageous to use the
3B Nutrient Field Sheet first to determine if present agricultural
management practices may be contributing to nutrient enrich-
ment in the nearby watercourse.
Additionally, it may be necessary to conduct or have con-
ducted nutrient chemical analyses or to contact the State water
quality agency to get nutrient values for the watercourse being
examined.
Figure 5-1
Advanced Eutrophication of a Pond.
23
Figure 5-2
Nutrients
FIELD SHEET 3A: NUTRIENTS
INDICATORS FOR RECEIVING WATERCOURSES AND WATER BODIES*
Evaluator County/State Date
Water Body Evaluated Water Body Location Total Score/ Rank
Rating Item Excellent : Good : Fair : Poor
(Circle one number among the four choices in each row which BEST describes the conditions of the watercourse or
water body being evaluated. If a condition has characteristics of two categories, you can "split" a score )
1 Total amount
-- Little vegetation, uncluttered
-- Moderate amounts of
-- Cluttered weedy conditions.
Choked weedy conditions
of aquatic
look to stream or pond.
vegetation.
Vegetation sometimes
or heavy algal blooms
vegetation at
OR
OR
luxurious and green
or no vegetation at all.
low flow or
What's expected for good
What's expected for good
-- Seasonal algal blooms.
-- Dense masses of slimy
in pooled
water quality conditions in
water quality conditions
white, greyish green,
in your region.
n iQtv hrrnA/n nr hla^U
Includes rooted
-- Usually fairly low amounts of
water molds common on
and floating
many different kinds of
bottom
plants, algae,
plants.
mosses &
periphyton
-- OTHER
-- OTHER
-- OTHER
- OTHER
10
6
3
2. Color of
-- Clear or slightly greenish
-- Fairly clear; slightly
-- Greenish Difficult to
-- \/gry, very green pond
water due to
water in pond or along the
greenish
get pond sample without
plants at
whole reach of stream.
pieces of algae or weeds
-- Pea green color or pea
base or low
in it.
soup condition during
flow
seasonal blooms of
microscopic algae in ponds.
-- "Oily-like" sheen when
pea soup algae die off.
- OTHER
-- OTHER
-- OTHER
-- OTHER
9
6
3
3. Fish
-- No fish piping or aberrant
In hot climates, occas-
-- Fish piping common just
-- Pronounced fish piping.
behavior in
behavior.
sional fish piping or
before dawn.
-- Pond fish kills common.
hot weater
-- No fish kills.
gulping for air in ponds
-- Occasional fish kills.
-- Frequent stream fish
fish kills,
just before dawn.
kills during spring thaw.
especially before
-- No fish kills in last two
-- Very tolerant species
dawn
years.
(e.g. bullhead, catfish).
-- OTHER
-- OTHER
-- OTHER
-- OTHER
9
5
3
4 Water use
-- None.
-- Minimal, such as reduced
A couple of the following:
Several of the following:
impacts,
quality of fishing.
-- Algal clogged pipes.
-- Algal clogged pipes.
health
-- Algal related taste, color,
-- Algal related taste, color,
effects for
or odor problems with
or odor problems with
whole sub-
human or livestock water
human or livestock water
watershed
supply.
supply.
-- Cattle abortion.
-- Cattle abortion.
-- Reduced recreational use
-- Reduced quality of fishery.
due to weedy conditions,
-- Reduced recreational use
decay, odors, etc.
due to weedy conditions,
decay, odors, etc.
-- Blue babies — incidence
of methemoglobinemia due
to high nitrate levels.
-- Property devaluation.
-- OTHER
8
-- OTHER
7
-- OTHER
4
-- OTHER
2
5. Bottom -
-- Intolerant species occur:
-- Intolerants common.
-- Mainly tolerants: snails,
-- Mainly very-tolerants:
dwelling
mayflies, stonefiles.
-- A mix of tolerants: shrimp,
shrimp, damselflies.
midges, craneflies, horseflies,
aquatic
caddisflies. water penny,
damselflies, dragonflies,
dragonflies, black flies.
rat-tailed maggots, or no
organisms
riffle beetle.
black flies.
-- Mainly tolerants, but some
organisms at all.
-- High diversity.
-- Moderate diversity.
very-tolerants.
-- Very reduced diversity,
-- Intolerants rare.
upsurges of very-tolerants
-- Reduced diversity with
common
occasional upsurges of
tolerants. e.g. tube worms,
and chironomids.
- OTHER
-- OTHER
-- OTHER
-- OTHER
9
7
3
1
*The effects of nutrients may be "masked" by high sediment loads, creating sufficient turbidity to shade light-dependent aquatic vegetation This may cause aquatic
vegetation, a water quality indicator, to die and disappear from the watercourse. To obtain accurate nutrient levels in high sediment situations, chemical testing may
be necessary. Under these circumstances you should contact a local or other water quality specialist.
1 . Add the circled Rating Item scores to get a total for the field sheet. TOTAL [
2. Check the ranking for this site based on the total field score. Check "excellent" if the score totals at least 38. Check "good" if the score falls between 23 and 37,
etc Record your total score and rank (excellent, good, etc.) in the upper right-hand corner of the field sheet. If a Rating Item is "fair" or "poor,"complete Field
Sheet 3B.
RANKING Excellent (38-45) [ ] Good (23-37) [ ] Fair (9-22) [ ] Poor (8 or less) [
24
1. Total amount of aquatic vegetation (Refer to Field Sheet
3A. rating item 1. figure 5-2.)
Aquatic vegetation must be supplied with a sufficient
quantity of nutrients to grow and reproduce. Vegetative
growth in many waterways and bodies is held in check by a
limited amount of an available nutrient, i.e., the limiting
nutrient. Typically, waters are phosphorus limited, although
in some areas the waters naturally contain hjgh phosphate
levels and nitrogen is the limiting nutrient.
Agriculturally related inputs of phosphorus, nitrogen, or
both to nutrient-limited waters promote aquatic plant growth.
With minimal additions of nutrients, plants may appear even
more robust and luxurious than usual. For example, water-
cress that has additional nutrients may be darker green than
normal. By contrast, moderate amounts of nutrients may
result in noticeable increases in plant biomass. Stands of
watercress under this condition might enlarge considerably in
surface area. Heavy additions of nutrients can stimulate
weedy proliferations or extensive algal blooms. Sometimes
this potential is not realized, such as when sediment loads are
so great that light becomes the limiting factor for plant
growth. In this instance, sediment masks the expected effects
of nutrient enrichment.
When a watercourse or water body regularly displays
symptoms of heavy nutrient enrichment, such as extensive al-
gal slimes (scums) or weedy proliferations, it is labelled "eu-
trophic." It is common for these eutrophic waters to be
clogged with vegetation. In general, standing bodies of water
are more prone to eutrophication than flowing waters,
although even streams may appear quite clogged during peri-
ods of low flow.
Many types of aquatic vegetation, such as watermilfoil
and many algae, die back at the end of summer in response
to unidentified seasonal environmental influences. When sig-
nificant masses of vegetation die simultaneously, the bio-
chemical oxygen demand (BOD) of the water increases
dramatically and the amount of dissolved oxygen (DO) drops
precipitously as oxygen-requiring (aerobic) micro-organisms
begin the process of decomposition. These lowered DO levels
stress all aquatic organisms, both animals and plants, and
may lead to fish kills and the elimination of all vegetation.
This is discussed further in the next section.
2. Color of water (Refer to Field Sheet 3A. rating item 2,
figure 5-2).
Excessive growth of microscopic plants or algae
(phytoplankton. figs. B-l to B-6) often manifests itself as a
change in the color of the water. Ponds in particular might
assume a deeper color of various shades of green, blue-
green, red. gray, or yellow depending upon the phytoplank-
ton species present. Blue-green algae can undergo tremendous
growth in numbers when phosphorus is added, so that the water
can become like pea soup. Furthermore, blue-greens can survive
nitrogen deficient conditions because they are able to utilize
atmospheric nitrogen in much the same manner as soil bacteria
in the nodules of legumes. In addition, many blue-greens secrete
toxins or foul-tasting chemicals, making them most unattractive
as food to other organisms.
Animal plankton (zooplankton— small, floating or feebly
swimming animals), such as water fleas, rotifers, and cope-
pods, which usually graze on the phytoplankton (plant plank-
ton) avoid blue-green algae. As a result, blue-green algae can
grow unchecked by predators until the algae die in massive
amounts. The decay of algal overgrowths leads to fluctuating
oxygen levels and to periodic oxygen depletions (anoxia) that
sometimes result in fish kills (fig. 5-3). During extended
periods of anoxia, vegetation of all types is destroyed during
the nights, when photosynthesis does not occur (ref. 5-3).
3. Fish diversity, behavior and fish kills (Refer to Field Sheet
3A, rating item 3. figure 5-2.)
Nutrient enrichment can lead to the simplification of food
webs by the elimination of sensitive species, w hich are the least
able to cope with adverse conditions. Long-lived organisms
that reproduce slowly and require extended periods of stable
conditions fare worst in unstable eutrophied waters. In partic-
ular, fish populations often shift from dominance by larger,
top predator game species to dominance by smaller, less
desirable forage (rough) species. For example, in Lake Erie
the long-lived highly edible sport fish, such as lake trout,
whitefish. pike, and walleye, were replaced by "rough"
fish— carp, smelt, drum, and alewives (fig. B-12. ref. 5-1.)
Sensitive species, such as sport fish, decline because they
cannot tolerate the periodic episodes of:
• Low dissolved oxygen levels (anoxia) due to the decom-
position by micro-organisms of massive amounts of dead
plants;
• Toxicity due to the release of the poisonous gases (hydro-
gen sulfide and methane) by anaerobic micro-organisms
during anoxic conditions;
• Toxicity due to secretions from some blue-green or
dinofiagellate algal blooms: or
• Some combination of the above activities with other
major agricultural pollutants (adapted from Luoma. ref.
5-3).
The loss of species diversity, as sensitive species die, is
undesirable for both economic and ecological reasons. The
loss of sport fish from a lake may constitute a major eco-
nomic loss to sport fishermen and local businesses dependent
upon the fishermen.
Ecologically , simplification of a food web is a "warning
signal" or indicator that the whole ecosystem is unhealthy
and may be in jeopardy. An unhealthy system is more vul-
nerable than a healthy "diverse" system to further disrup-
tions or disturbances, whether natural or caused by human
activities.
25
Figure 5-3
l-.-.l- - " - - -v. "
The Eutrophication Process.
26
Fish kills can occur in ponds that receive excessive
nutrient inflows. Three common scenarios for eutrophied
ponds are described below, namely:
• Floating Plant (macrophyte) Infestation
• Algal Mats (filamentous) Infestation
• Pea Soup (phytoplankton) Infestation
Floating plant (macrophUe) infestation. In the summer
months, floating plants, such as duckweed (Lemna. fig. B-7),
can proliferate in ponds enriched by the runoff from fertilized
fields or pastures. If left unchecked, these plants can multiply
and cover the entire pond surface. When this happens, light
cannot penetrate through the surface plant cover. Without
light, the naturally occurring phytoplankton (microscopic al-
gae) at the base of aquatic food chains cannot carry on pho-
tosynthesis, and little or no oxygen is produced. The
protective cover of floating plants also reduces wave action,
an important source of oxygen. Oxygen is depleted by the
respiration of plants, animals, and micro-organisms.
Hot weather intensifies the problem by accelerating both
the rate of respiration of the organisms and the chemical oxi-
dation of many substances. Eventually , fish and other
oxygen-requiring (aerobic) organisms suffocate from a lack of
dissolved oxygen, and fish kills occur.
Algal mat (filamentous) infestation— fish piping com-
mon. Many farmers routinely treat ponds for floating plants
before the plant populations reach nuisance proportions.
However, some ponds that appear "clear"' (you can see to
the bottom) will have significant amounts of filamentous al-
gae (pond scum) growing along the bottom and sides or at-
tached to rocks or other larger plants (fig. B-7). In response
to an unidentified trigger, these filamentous algae rise to the
surface in mats and die. creating decaying odors and
nuisances.
The sudden existence of such large quantities of dead al-
gae in a pond pollutes the pond by increasing oxygen-
demanding organic matter, which increases the biochemical
oxygen demand (BOD) of the decay micro-organisms. This
results in an immediate drain on the dissolved oxygen (DO).
DO levels in the pond become critical at night when photo-
synthesis by any remaining living plants comes to a halt.
The lowest DO levels occur at dawn.
At sunrise, fish in a pond with insufficient DO can be
observed congregating at the edge of the water where DO
levels are highest. The fish usually assume a hanging position
at approximately a 45 degree angle and pipe (suck or gulp)
air. Under these critical DO concentrations, fish begin to die
slowly. It takes about a week of nightly DO levels dropping
to levels of less than 2.0 parts per million (ppm) to achieve a
total kill.
Under highly enriched conditions, aerobic decay micro-
organisms may become too overworked to handle the in-
creased organic load and may die of suffocation when DO
levels approach zero. The decomposition process is then
taken over by much less efficient anaerobic bacteria that do
not require oxygen. These bacteria release a gas that smells
like rotten eggs (hydrogen sulfide), as well as other
poisonous breakdown products. The bacteria contribute to the
ultimate decline of a lake or pond, which then is most unap-
pealing in terms of sight, smell, and taste. This situation can
be particularly dangerous in lakes or ponds used as reservoirs
for drinking water.
Pea soup (phytoplankton) infestation. Farm ponds,
which become highly enriched with nutrients may undergo
much photosynthesis and take on a pea soup appearance to a
depth of more than 1 ft. During summer, in some farm ponds
in the South, SCS personnel have recorded supersaturated DO
levels ranging up to 28 ppm at 4 o'clock in the afternoon,
dropping to near ppm by an hour after sunrise of the
following day. Fish kills are common under such conditions.
The organisms responsible for the fish kills in the pea
soup condition are phytoplankton (small, floating plants),
which are so small that they can be observed only with a
microscope. The phytoplankton consist of a variety of algae,
including diatoms and green and blue-green algae (cyanobac-
teria. fig. B-l to B-6). Despite their small size, populations
of these plankton can reach proportions that color the water
pea green and thicken it to resemble soup.
4. Hater use impacts (Refer to Field Sheet 3A. rating item 4,
figure 5-2).
Agricultural^ related nutrient enrichment and eutrophica-
tion can adversely affect a number of water uses. For exam-
ple, eutrophied water can alter the color, taste, and odor of a
drinking water supply . The removal of excessive algal slimes
may also increase the cost of water treatment. Nuisance levels
of vegetation or algae may detract from the aesthetic quality
of the water, clog pipes and intakes, and reduce property
values and recreational use.
Finally , high nitrate levels in drinking water are known
to affect adversely the health of babies and the elderly. Ba-
bies who receive too much nitrate from the water used in
preparing formula may suffer from methemoglobinemia, or
blue baby syndrome. Some babies have died from this condi-
tion, when it was not treated in time. These same conditions
can affect the young of cattle.
5. Bottom-dwelling aquatic organisms (Refer to Field Sheet
3A, rating item 5. figure 5-2).
As waters become increasingly eutrophied. the abundance
and species composition of bottom organisms change. Waters
receiving few. if any. excess nutrients from agricultural or
other sources are characterized by a high diversity of bottom-
dwelling organisms. Generally, in these very pristine waters,
the diversity of bottom species is high, but the number of
each type is low.
Among bottom organisms found to be sensitive to or in-
tolerant of nutrient excesses are mayflies, stoneflies. caddis-
flies, water-penny, and riffle beetles (ref. 5-4). Generally, as
nutrient quantities increase, populations of these intolerant
species recede. They are replaced by expanding populations
of nutrient-tolerant species, such as chironomids and black-
flies. The usual pattern is that as nutrients increase over
27
time, the number of species (species diversity or richness)
decreases, while the population growth of a few species in-
creases.
An excellent tool for determining the diversity of bottom-
dwelling invertebrates is the Sequential Comparison Index
(SCI, appendix A), which is designed for nonprofessionals
and assumes no background knowledge of biology or taxono-
my (ref. 5-5). Appendix A also contains Beck's Biotic Index
procedure, which requires the identification of pollution-
tolerant and intolerant species to make a water quality deter-
mination. Appendix B contains pictorial keys for common in-
vertebrates and another procedure entitled "Simple
Assessment of Bottom-Dwelling Insects."
28
Chapter 6
Pesticides
Most agricultural pesticides are either herbicides, which
make up approximately one-half of the U.S. pesticide usage, or
insecticides, which make up about one-third of the pesticide
usage.
Effects of Pesticides on the Aquatic Environment
The effect of a pesticide on the aquatic environment depends
upon many factors, including the physical, chemical, and biolog-
ical properties of the pesticide: the amount, method, and timing
of application: and the intensity of the first storm event follow-
ing application. In general, pesticide effects on aquatic organ-
isms vary with the relative toxicity of the pesticide, its
persistence or how long it remains active in the environment,
and its tendency to accumulate in the food chain. The longer
a pesticide persists in the soil, the greater the opportunity for it
to be transported from the crop area to receiving waters or to
ground water, or for it to affect nontarget organisms, such as
animals, humans, and noncrop plants adversely.
Insecticides: Chlorinated hydrocarbon insecticides, such as
DDT. which appeared after World War II. are of low-to-
moderate toxicity and are termed '"wide-spectrum*' (i.e., they
kill a wide variety of insects). These insecticides severely affect-
ed many environments, killing top-of-the-food-chain predator
birds, such as the bald eagle, brown pelican, and peregrine fal-
con.
The most infamous of the synthetic organics was DDT.
DDT is very persistent, with a half-life in sediments of greater
than 10 years. The half-life is how long it takes for half of a
compound to decay . Since DDT is fat soluble, it concentrates in
the fat of organisms. Figure 6-1 illustrates the increase in con-
centration of DDD. a close relative of DDT. as DDD is passed
from one organism to another up the food chain in a lake.
In some ecosystems, DDT can become concentrated at the
top of the aquatic food chain in quantities great enough to inter-
fere with reproduction or cause death. Consequently , decline or
death of birds of prey at the top of aquatic food chains (e.g.,
bald eagle or fish hawk) may be an indicator of pesticide
damage to an aquatic ecosystem.
The decline or death of sensitive fish species and other
aquatic organisms also serves as an indicator of pesticide pollu-
tion. Salmonids (rainbow trout, brown trout, and salmon) are the
most sensitive to chlorinated hydrocarbon pesticides. Redear
sunfish. bluegill. and largemouth bass are intermediate in
sensitivity, with channel catfish and black bullheads being the
least sensitive (ref. 6-1).
Today, most synthetic organic insecticides have been
replaced by the organophosphate insecticides (e.g.. malathion
and diazinon) and by carbamates (e.g.. carbaryl). Organo-
phosphate insecticides are much less persistent, with half-
lives from 1 to 12 weeks. The main feature of organophosphate
insecticides is their rapid degradability (ref. 6-1). Some carba-
mates persist only a few days.
Since carbamates and organophosphates are not fat soluble,
they do not concentrate in organisms nor do they accumulate up
the food chains. Consequently, the compounds are much safer
environmentally. However, while organophosphate compounds
are safer environmentally, a toxic organophosphate compound
can kill fish in a water body and quickly degrade with no
detectable chemical trace a few weeks later. Fish families still
show the same types of sensitivity to the organophosphates that
they did to the chlorinated hydrocarbons, with salmonids being
Figure 6-1
Biomagnification of DDD in the Food Chain
at Clear Lake, California.
Numbers are times amount in water.
Concentration
(Fhnt and van den Bosch. 1977) (Ref. 6-10)
the most sensitive and catfish the least sensitive. Carbamates and
organophosphates are soluble in water and can be easily
transported in water. Thus, these compounds may increase the
potential for ground water contamination.
Herbicides: Herbicides vary considerably in their persis-
tence. Herbicides, such as 2.4-D and alachlor. are considered to
be nonpersistent. with half-lives of less than 20 days. They sel-
dom remain in the soil for longer than a month to 6 weeks when
used at the recommended levels for weed control. Atrazine is
considerably more persistent, remaining in the soil for as long as
17 months. Others such as monuron. picloram. simazine. and
paraquat are very persistent, remaining in the soil from 2 to 4
years. Most herbicides are nonpersistent. breaking down by the
end of the growing season (ref. 6-2, 6-3).
In general, when compared to insecticides, herbicides in use
today rank lower in relative fish toxicity and the potential for
environmental impact. Many herbicides do not appear to have a
29
permanent impact on aquatic ecosystems and appear to be only
moderately toxic to fish.
Pesticide Indicators for Receiving Waters
1. Presence of pesticide containers (Refer to Field Sheet 4A,
rating item 1, figure 6-2).
Evidence of careless and haphazard disposal or dumping
of pesticide containers in or near sink holes, streams, or
water bodies should be a warning of possible adverse pesti-
cide effects on the aquatic ecosystem.
2. Appearance of nontarget vegetation (Refer to Field Sheet
4A, rating item 2, figure 6-2).
By definition, herbicides are toxic to plant life. Herbi-
cides draining from agricultural fields can result in the death
of aquatic vegetation. This is especially true if a storm occurs
immediately following spraying and washes the newly applied
pesticide into nearby waters. Also, aerial drift that carries
pesticide away from the field, and "overspray" by the spray
plane beyond the field edge can damage or kill aquatic
vegetation by landing directly on it. Large (macroscopic)
aquatic plants are particularly sensitive. Microscopic
phytoplankiton appear to be less sensitive, although the effects
on plankton have not been extensively studied (ref. 6-3).
Leaf burn and evidence of vegetative dieback on nontar-
get vegetation, whether aquatic or terrestrial, are indicators
of herbicide damage. Care should be taken to look for this
type of evidence in or along ponds, drainage ditches, and
streams. Examine floating species, such as pond lilies and
duckweed. Also examine emergent rooted aquatics, such as
watercress, watershield, and spatterdock, and marginal
weeds, such as alligator weed, smartweed, arrowhead, pick-
erelweed, and cattails (fig. B-7).
3. Overall diversity of insects, presence of "fish bait types"
(Refer to Field Sheet 4A, rating item 3, figure 6-2).
Insecticides kill nontarget, as well as target insects and
other closely related species. It is not uncommon to observe
reduced species diversity and reduced populations of aquatic
bottom-dwelling organisms in waters that receive pesticide
runoff. Diversity is reduced as sensitive species, such as
some types of mayflies, dragonflies, water mites, or beetles,
decline or die off. As sensitive species die, populations of
insecticide-tolerant species, such as blackflies and
chironomids, expand to fill the void vacated by the sensitive
species. Ask the landowner if there have been any insect
population upsurges or decreases in the local area. An excel-
lent tool for determining the diversity of bottom-dwelling in-
vertebrates is the Sequential Comparison Index (SCI) shown
in appendix A.
4. Overall diversity of fish (Refer to Field Sheet 4A, rating
item 4, figure 6-2).
Chronic sublethal effects of pesticides in waters are
difficult to observe. Chronic effects include:
• Fish avoidance of contaminated watercourse areas. This
may result in their absence in a localized area or prevent
their swimming into these areas to spawn.
• Altered reproduction due to toxicity or avoidance. Trout
do not naturally reproduce in some agriculturally drained
streams common to their range.
• Lowered fish productivity.
• Young fish mortality (decreased survival of newly
hatched fish; adapted from Pimentel, Brown, Cross, ref.
6-4, 6-5, 6-6).
These subtle effects, combined with the dieback of fish
food (fish bait) organisms as described in number 3 above,
manifest themselves in altered or degraded fisheries. In
general, the greater the input of pesticides, the less diverse
the fishery. Salmonids appear to be most sensitive and
decline or are eliminated first. Next in sensitivity are the in-
tolerant centrachids, such as longear sunfish, striped bass,
smallmouth bass, crappie, redfin pickerel, and bluegill. These
are followed by the more tolerant centrachids (blacknose
dace, common shiner, sculpin, creek chub, madtom, golden
shiner, largemouth bass, blueback herring and alewives). In
the worst of the chronically polluted pesticide waters, there
are only the very most tolerant species of cyprinid minnows
and ictalurids. Typical species include brownhead carp, bull-
heads, white sucker, shad and catfish, or no fish at all. See
appendix B for a brief summary of fish species (ref. 6-7,
6-8).
5. Fish kills, animal teratology (Refer to Field Sheet 4A, rat-
ing item 5, figure 6-2).
Acute effects of lethal concentrations of pesticides result
in insect kills (mayfly, dragonfly, etc.) or fish kills or both.
These kills are usually of a limited nature and are easy to ob-
serve. They frequently occur after routine spraying of barns
or feedlot areas that are in close proximity to a watercourse or
pond, or from the improper washing of spray equipment and
containers. Massive kills are rare.
Chronic sublethal concentrations of pesticides are some-
times teratogenic; that is. they produce birth defects or
tumors. One type of birth defect that might be observed is
broken-back syndrome in fish (vertebral deformities and
scoliosis). Other types are deformed bird beaks or the ab-
sence of ears or eyes, resulting from elevated levels of
selenium or other trace elements or toxic ions.
30
Figure 6-2
Pesticides
FIELD SHEET 4A: PESTICIDES
INDICATORS FOR RECEIVING WATERCOURSES AND WATER BODIES
Evaluator — County/State Date
Water Body Evaluated Water Body Location Total Score/Rank
Rating Item Excellent : Good : Fair : Poor
(Circle one number among the four choices in each row which BEST describes the conditions of the watercourse or
water body being evaluated If a condition has characteristics of two categories, you can "split" a score.)
1 Presence of
pesticide
containers
-- No containers in or near
water
-- OTHER
9
-- No containers in or near
water
-- OTHER
9
— ^iji I la < IICI5 ULa 1CU i iCai
the water
-- OTHER
5
fr\nta i n^rc in tho utafpr
\/Ui itaii ici 9 iii u ic waic!
-- OTHER
3
2. Appearance of
non-target
vegetation
-- No leaf burn
-- No vegetation dieback
- OTHER
9
-- Some leaf burn.
-- No vegetation dieback.
- OTHER
6
-- Significant leaf burn.
-- Some vegetation dieback.
-- OTHER
4
-- Severe dieback of
vegetation
- OTHER
1
3. Overall
diversity of
insects
("fish bait")
-- High diversity including
dragonflies. stoneflies.
mayflies, caddisflies. water
mites or beetles.
-- OTHER
10
-- Average diversity of
insects — some of those
listed under excellent
- OTHER
8
-- Occasional insect kills.
Reduced numbers and kinds.
Upsurges of blackfhes &
chironomids.
-- OTHER
3
-- Insect kills common Not
many fish-bait types such
as hellgrammites (the
larvae of dobsonflies).
aiderfhes. or fishflies
- OTHER
1
4. Overall
diversity
of fish
-- Excellent fish diversity—
what's expected in the area
-- Presence of intolerants such
as brook, brown or rainbow
trout salmon or stickleback
- OTHER
9
-- Good fish diversity.
-- Native salmonids (trout &
salmon) begin to die out
first The least tolerant
centrarchids (longear sun-
fish, rock bass, small-
mouth bass, crappie.
redfinned pickerel and
bluegill) begin to decline.
-- OTHER
: 7
-- Reduced fish diversity
-- The more tolerant centrar-
chids die off— blacknose
dace, common shiner,
sculpin. creekchub.
madtom. golden shiner,
large mouth bass, blueback
herring, and alewives.
-- Larger proportion of green
sunfish.
-- Occasional (once every 1-2
years) pond fish kills.
-- OTHER
4
-- Extremely reduced fish
diversity.
-- Only very tolerant
species of cyprinids &
ictalurids (such as
brownhead carp, bull-
heads, white sucker,
shad, and catfish
-- Some highly polluted
waters (usually ponds)
may lack fish entirely
-- OTHER
1
5 Fish kills;
animal
teratology
(birth
defects &
tumors in
fish & other
animals)
-- No fish kills in last 2 years
-- No birth defects of tumors.
-- OTHER
9
-- Fish kills rare in last
2 years.
-- Minimal birth defects &
tumors occurring in the
population randomly.
-- OTHER
5
-- Occasional fish kills.
-- Some birth defects &
tumors.
- OTHER
3
-- Fish kills common in
last couple of years.
-- Frequent fish kills
during spring thaws
-- Yearly pond fish kills
following aquatic vegeta-
tion dieback not uncommon.
:— Considerable numbers of
birth defects & tumors.
-- OTHER
Normal behavior, e.g. fish
seen breaking the surface for
insects
No evidence of
disease, tumors, fin damage.
or other anomalies
No fish piping or aberrant
behavior.
No fish kills.
OTHER
Behavior as expected, e g
evidence of fish, such as
water rings or bubbles
Little if any evidence of
disease, tumors, fin
damage, or other anomalies.
In hot climates, occasional
fish piping or gulping for
air in ponds just before
dawn
No fish kills in last 2
years
OTHER
7
-- Behavioral changes in
fish — swimming near
surface, uncoordinated
movements, convulsive
darting movements, erratic
swimming up & down or in
small circles, hyperexcita-
bility (jumping out),
difficulty in respiration.
More likely seen in ponds
-- Fish piping common.
-- Occasional fish kills.
- OTHER
4
Fish avoidance or be-
haviors, such as erratic
swimming near surface &
gulping for or piping
for air More likely
seen in ponds.
Pond fish kills common
Frequent stream fish
kills during Spring thaw
Very tolerant species
(e.g. bullhead, catfish).
OTHER
1 Add the circled Rating Item scores to get a total for the field sheet TOTAL [
2 Check the ranking for this site based on the total field score Check "excellent" if the score totals at least 40 Check "good" if the score falls between 27 and 39.
etc Record your total score and rank (excellent, good, etc ) in the upper right-hand corner of the field sheet If a Rating Item is "fair" or "poor." complete Field
Sheet 4B.
RANKING Excellent (40-46) [ ] Good (27-39) [ ] Fair (12-26) [ ] Poor (1 1 or less) [
OPTiONAL RANKING Excellent (48-55) [ Good (32-47) [ Fair (14-31) [ Poor (13 or less) [
31
6. Fish behavior and condition (Refer to Field Sheet 4A, rat-
ing item 6, figure 6-2).
In addition to a degraded (less diverse) and less productive
fishery, chronic sublethal doses of pesticides can lead to the
following conditions, which are more likely to be observed in
standing waters than in flowing waters:
• Increased susceptibility to attack by parasites and disease,
such as infection by the aquatic fungus, Saprolegnia;
• Increased incidences of tumors;
• Behavioral changes in fish:
- uncoordinated movements;
- convulsive darting movements;
- erratic swimming up and down or in a small circle;
- sluggishness (nonresponsiveness) alternating with hyper-
excitability (jumping out);
- difficulty in respiration (adapted from Pimentel, Brown,
Cross, ref. 6-4, 6-5, 6-6).
Frog tadpoles display some of the same aberrant types of
behavior as fish; that is, hyper-irritability, spastic activity,
and rhythmic muscular contractions that produce a whirling
motion (ref. 6-9).
32
Chapter 7
Animal Wastes
Animal Waste Pollutants: Micro-organisms, Organic Matter,
and Nutrients
Surface runoff of animal wastes contaminates a receiving
body of water with four types of pollutants: ( 1 ) pathogenic and
nonpathogenic micro-organisms; (2) biodegradable organic mat-
ter; (3) nutrients; and (4) salts. Ground water can be adversely
affected by animal-waste nutrients and salts. Only organic matter
can be seen with the naked eye. but it. too, may be degraded
into fine particles that dissolve or remain suspended in the
water. These particles color the water, increase its turbidity, and
increase the biochemical oxygen demand (BOD). Refer to figure
7-1 for a comparison of typical BOD concentrations in municipal
and agricultural wastes. Effects of the bacteria, nutrients, and
salts may be observed indirectly, such as human-health effects
from shellfish contamination or as eutrophication.
Micro-organisms. Animal wastes are potential sources of
approximately 150 diseases. Illnesses that may be transmitted by
animal manure include bacterial diseases, such as typhoid fever,
gastro-intestinal disorders, cholera, tuberculosis, anthrax, and
mastitis. Transmittable viral diseases are hog cholera, foot and
mouth disease, polio, respiratory diseases, and eye infections
(ref. 7-3).
Figure 7-1.— BOD concentrations in municipal and agricultural
wastes (ref. 7-1 . 7-2).
All values are BOD5* in milligrams per liter (mg 1 ).
Raw domestic (municipal) sewage 200
Treated sewage with secondary treatment 20
Milking center wastes 1,500
Influent source Effluent source
to a lagoon from a lagoon
Dairy cattle 6.000 2.100
Beef cattle 6,700 2.345
Swine 12.800 4.480
Poultry 9.800 3.430
*The determination of Biochemical Oxygen Demand as an empirical test-
ing procedure to determine relative o.xvgen requirements of wastewater,
effluents, and polluted waters using a 5-day incubation period.
Numerous factors influence the nature and amount of
disease-producing organisms that reach waterways. Some of
these factors are climate, soil types and infiltration rates, topog-
raphy, animal species, animal health, and the presence of "car-
rier" organisms. These latter organisms carry disease-causing
micro-organisms in significant numbers, but do not contract the
disease themselves. Manure, applied to the land in solid or slur-
ry form or stored in lagoons, poses varying public health haz-
ards, depending on the distance to watercourses, nature of the
soil overlying aquifers, etc. When manure is applied on hot.
sunny days, harmful bacteria die quite rapidly, virtually
eliminating any potential health threat. However, rain falling on
freshly applied manure may yield 10.000 to 10 million bacteria
per milliliter in runoff waters. The public health hazard in-
creases if manure is applied onto frozen ground or in the rain.
or if a lagoon overflows. Direct disposal into water represents a
significant threat to animals, or to humans swimming in or
drinking the water (ref. 7-4).
Public health departments test for the presence of Es-
cherichia coli (E. coli) to determine if waters classified for
swimming are contaminated by organic pollution. The most
commonly used indicator species of organic pollution is E. coli.
It is generally nonpathogenic and is a member of a group of fe-
cal coliforms. bacteria that reside in the intestine of warm
blooded animals, including humans. The presence of E. coli does
not by itself confirm the presence of pathogens. Rather, it
indicates contamination by sewage or animal manure and the
potential for health risks. Unfortunately, there is still no easy
method for distinguishing between human and animal coliform
bacteria (ref. 7-5).
For this reason and because bacterial identification requires
the use of sterile technique and incubation, field offices general-
ly have not used bacteria as pollution indicators. However, those
individuals interested in using bacteria as pollution indicators
should refer to the last page in appendix B and to Standard
Methods for the Examination of Water and Waste Water (ref. B-
5) for details.
Organic Matter. Animal waste contaminates receiving
waters with oxygen-demanding organic matter, including organic
nitrogen and phosphorus compounds. When manure enters a
standing water body, such as a pond, it is subject to natural de-
cay. As decomposition occurs, BOD increases, dissolved oxygen
(DO) decreases, and ammonia is released. Low DO levels and
increased ammonia cause stress to stream inhabitants. Fish, in
particular, are sensitive to ammonia. Nonionic (un-ionized)
ammonia (NH,) concentrations as low as 0.2 ppm may prove
toxic to fish (ref. 7-6).
Animal manure is commonly spread on frozen ground in
cold regions. When snowmelt runoff occurs in early spring,
some of the manure washes away in the runoff from the frozen
ground, contaminating nearby watercourses and bodies. Fish
kills are common under these circumstances. Frequently, the
receiving waters are the farm's own pond or stream.
It is only later in the spring after a complete thaw that ma-
nure nutrients are able to seep into the soil. Even then, since the
crop has not been planted, or if planted, is immature and lacks
extensive root systems, more than half of the nutrients can wash
through the soil or run off it. Since surfaces coated with \ery dry
or very wet manure repel water, there is greater runoff in range
areas or feedlots under these conditions compared to less runoff
from water-absorbing, moderately moist manured areas. In
general, from 0.22 to 0.5 in of rain is necessary to produce runoff.
Monitoring has shown that manure solids in late-February and
early-March runoffs can be ten times more concentrated than
summer rain-storm runoffs (ref. 7-3, 7-4, 7-7).
Fast-moving (lotic) waters usually can effectively degrade
moderate amounts of manure and organic matter w ithout severe
declines in water quality. However, since lakes and ponds (lentic
waters) are characterized by lesser flows, they often have less
dissolved oxygen. They usually degrade less manure and organic
matter and can be easily overloaded.
Nutrients. The effects of nutrient enrichment on receiving
waters, whether nutrients come from fertilizers or manure, are
the same. Since this is the case, the effects of nutrients on
receiving waters discussed in Chapter 5 are applicable here.
53
Salts. Salts are added to animal feeds to maintain the
animal's chemical balance and increase weight. Excess salts pass
through the animals and are eliminated in the wastes. When
manure accumulates, salt leaching becomes a potential pollution
problem. With sufficient rainfall and runoff, salts can contribute
to surface and ground water pollution (ref. 7-8).
Animal Waste Indicators for Receiving Waters
1. Evidence of animal waste: visual and olfactory (Refer to
Field Sheet 2A, rating item 1, figure 7-2).
The most obvious indication of fresh manure, even at a
distance, is the unpleasant odor and the smell of ammonia.
Closer visual inspection of the water and the water's edge is
necessary to locate dried sludge, which may be fairly
odorless.
2. Turbidity and color (Refer to Field Sheet 2A, rating item 2,
figure 7-2).
When manure enters water, it disintegrates fairly rapidly
into small particulate matter. When the manure input is heavy
and the rate of water flow is low, a noticeable increase in
turbidity might occur (i.e., water may appear more opaque or
cloudy).
Nutrients contained in the manure eventually dissolve and
are taken up by plants. The indirect effects of increased
nutrients manifest themselves in both the vigor and amount of
aquatic vegetation. For a detailed discussion of these effects,
refer to chapter 5.
3. Aquatic vegetation; fish behavior; bottom-dwelling organ-
isms (For rating items 3, 4, and 5 on Field Sheet 2 A, see items
1, 3, and 5 in Chapter 5).
Some of the same water-use impacts noted for nutrients
in item 4, chapter 5 are also true for manure. For example,
waters having excessive inputs of manure are often character-
ized by reduction in fishery quality. These waters also have
reduced recreational use because of odors, muddy conditions,
decay of massive amounts of vegetation, etc. Property near
or adjacent to these waters is often devalued.
Health effects, such as blue baby syndrome or water-
borne bacterial and viral diseases sometimes occur. The clos-
ing of bacterially contaminated areas to fishing or recreation
by public health agencies is sometimes due to animal waste
pollution from agricultural sources. Drinking water may also
be impaired by taste, color, odor, or turbidity problems.
34
Figure 7-2
Animal Waste
FIELD SHEET 2A: ANIMAL WASTE
INDICATORS FOR RECEIVING WATERCOURSES AND WATER BODIES
Evaluator County/State Date
Water Body Evaluated Water Body Location Total Score/ Rank
Rating Item Excellent Good Fair Poor
(Circle one number among the four choices in each row which BEST describes the conditions of the watercourse or
water body being evaluated If a condition has characteristics of two categories, you can "split" a score.)
1. Evidence of
animal
waste:
visual and
olfactory
-- No manure in or near water
body
-- No odor.
-- OTHER
9
-- Occasional manure
droppings where cattle
cross or in water
-- Slight musk odor
- OTHER
6
-- Manure droppings in concen-
trated localized areas
-- Strong manure or ammonia
odor.
-- OTHER
2
-- Dry and wet manure all
over banks or in water
-- Strong manure & ammonia
odor.
-- OTHER
2 Turbidity &
color
(observe in
slow water)
-- Clear or slightly greenish
water in pond or along the
whole reach of stream
-- No noticeable colored film on
submerged objects or rocks
-- OTHER
9
-- Occasionally turbid or
cloudy Water stirred up &
muddy & brownish at animal
crossings
-- Pond water greenish
-- Rocks or submerged obiects
covered with thin coating
of green, olive, or brown
build-up less than 5 mm
thick.
-- OTHER
6
-- Stream & pond water bubbly,
brownish and cloudy where
muddied by animal use
-- Pea green color in ponds
when not stirred up by
animals.
-- Bottom covered w/green or
olive film Rocks or sub-
merged obiects coated with
heavy or filamentous build-
up 5-75 mm thick or long
-- OTHER
3
-- Stream & pond water
brown to black.
occasionally with a
manure crust along banks.
-- Sluggish & standing
water— murky and bubbly
(foaming).
-- Ponds often bright
green or with brown/
black decaying algal
mats
-- OTHER
3 Amount of
aquatic
vegetation
-- Little vegetation— uncluttered
look to stream or pond
-- What you would expect for a
pristine water body in area
-- Usually fairly low amounts
of many different kinds of
plants.
-- OTHER
8
-- Moderate amounts of
vegetation; or
-- What you would expect for
the naturally occurring
site-specific conditions.
-- OTHER
6
-- Cluttered weedy conditions.
Vegetation sometimes
luxurious and green.
-- Seasonal algal blooms
-- OTHER
3
-- Choked weedy conditions
or heavy algal blooms
or no vegetation at all
-- Dense masses of slimy
white, greyish green,
rusty brown or black
water molds common on
bottom.
-- OTHER
4. Fish behavior
in hot weather;
fish kills.
especially before
dawn
-- No fish piping or aberrant
behavior.
-- No fish kills.
-- OTHER
8
-- In hot climates, occas-
sional fish piping or
gulping for air in ponds
lust before dawn
-- No fish kills in last
two years
-- OTHER
5
-- Fish piping common just
before dawn
-- Occasional fish kills.
-- OTHER
3
-- Pronounced fish piping.
-- Pond fish kills common.
-- Frequent stream fish
kills during spring thaw
-- Very tolerant species
(e.g.. bullhead, catfish)
- OTHER
5 Bottom
dwelling
aquatic
organisms
-- Intolerant species occur
mayflies, stoneflies,
caddisflies. water penny,
riffle beetle and a mix
of tolerants
-- High diversity.
-- OTHER
9
-- A mix of tolerants:
shrimp, damselflies.
dragonflies. black flies.
-- Intolerants rare
-- Moderate diversity.
-- OTHER
5
-- Many tolerants (snails.
shrimp, damselflies.
dragonflies. black flies)
-- Mainly tolerants and some
very tolerants
-- Intolerants rare
-- Reduced diversity with
occasional upsurges of
tolerants. e g tube worms.
and chironomids.
-- OTHER
3
-- Only tolerants or very
tolerants: midges,
craneflies. horseflies,
rat-tailed maggots, or
none at all
-- Very reduced diversity,
upsurges of very
tolerants common.
-- OTHER
1 Add the circled Rating Item scores to get a total for the field sheet TOTAL [ ]
2. Check the ranking for this site based on the total field score. Check "excellent" if the score totals at least 35 Check "good" if the score falls between 21 and 34.
etc Record your total score and rank (excellent, good, etc I in the upper right-hand corner of the field sheet If a Rating Item is "fair" or "poor," complete Field
Sheet 2B 1 or 2B ?
RANKING Excellent (35-43) [ ] Good (21 -34) [ ] Fair (7-20) [ ] Poor (6 or less) [
35
Chapter 8
Salts
More than 90 percent of the total irrigated land in the Unit-
ed States is distributed in 8 major river basins of the West, en-
compassing parts of 17 States (fig. 8-1). California and Texas
lead the Nation in the number of irrigated acres. The major
water quality problem identified in seven out of the eight basins
is salinity or salt pollution (ref. 8-1). Half of the 90 to 100 mil-
lion tons of salt delivered annually to watercourses comes from
agriculturally related activities (ref. 8-2). Salinity is commonly
measured and expressed as milligrams per liter (mg 1) or parts
per million (ppm).
Approximately one-fourth of all irrigated land (about 10 mil-
lion acres) suffers from salt-caused crop yield reductions (ref.
8-3). Although the most severe salt problems occur in the arid
and semiarid West (fig. 8-2), increasing salinity is symptomatic
of water use and reuse.
Figure 8-1
Salinity Indicators for Receiving Waters
1. Geology of area and geochemistry of water (Refer to
Field Sheet 5A. rating item 1. figure 8-3).
Salts come from natural sources and result from human
activities. Natural sources include geologic formations of ma-
rine origin, soils with poor drainage, salty ground water, and
salty springs. The salinity of the soil is increased primar-
ily by overapplying irrigation water to areas where drainage
is inadequate. The salinity of receiving waters is increased
primarily by over-irrigating lands underlain with salt-bearing
layers.
Saline waters contain a number of salts whose relative
proportions reflect the geology of the region as well as
seasonal changes in hydrology. Consequendy. salt propor-
tions tend to be site-specific. The primary components of the
dissolved solids that constitute saline water are chlorides, sul-
fates, and bicarbonates of the following elements: sodium,
calcium, magnesium, and potassium (ref. 8-3).
Hydrologic Divisions. 1
'Source EPA - Pollution Control Manual for Irrigated Agriculture (Ref 8-1 ).
37
Figure 8-2
Levels of Dissolved Solids (Mg/1) in U.S. Streams. 2
200 or less
201-500 501-1000
Milligrams per liter (Mg/1)
Over 1000
2 Source: EPA - Council on Environmental Quality. Analysis of U.S. Geological Survey data of the National Stream Quality Accounting Network (Ref. 8-4).
Precipitation and irrigation requirements (Refer to Field
Sheet 5A, rating item 2, figure 8-3).
The salinity of both water and soil is increased by salt
concentration and salt loading. High salt concentrations are
more likely to occur in semiarid and arid regions where
evaporation exceeds precipitation. In these regions of salt-
bearing layers, the usual salty water becomes even saltier as
water is lost by evaporation from soil and plants (evapotran-
spiration). Salt pollution is even more likely to occur in these
regions when drainage is inadequate or if water tables are
"perched" close to the surface (5 feet or less).
Salt "loading" occurs when irrigation water percolates
through a salt-laden soil profile or geologic layer on its way
back to a river or stream, or when irrigation return flows ac-
cumulate salt as they run over the soil surface. The greater the
irrigation requirements, the greater the opportunity for salt
loading of soils.
For example, of the 10 million metric tons of salt annual-
ly reaching the Lower Colorado River Basin, 600,000 to
700,000 metric tons are annually contributed by the Grand
Valley. The salt-load contribution from the Grand Valley is
the result of saline subsurface irrigation return flows reaching
the Colorado River. The alluvial soils of Grand Valley are
high in natural salts. However, the most significant salt source
is the Mancos Shale geologic formation, which underlies these
alluvial soils and which contains crystalline lenses of salt that
are readily dissolved by subsurface return flows (ref. 8-3, 8-5).
In this area, the irrigation water applied is at least three
times greater than the crop water requirements. Although
much of this excess water returns to open drains as surface
runoff, having negligible effect on the Colorado River salinity,
significant water quantities still reach the underlying Mancos
Shale formation and pass to a near-surface cobble aquifer,
where the water is returned into the Colorado River (ref. 8-5).
38
Figure 8-3
Salinity
FIELD SHEET 5A SALINITY
INDICATORS FOR RECEIVING WATERCOURSES AND WATER BODIES
Evaluator County/State Date
Water Body Evaluated Water Body Location Total Score/Rank
Rating Item Excellent Good Fair Poor
(Circle one number among the four choices in each row which BEST describes the conditions of the watercourse or
water body being evaluated If a condition has characteristics of two categories, you can "split" a score.)
1. Geology
of area
geochemistry
of water
-- Agricultural area overlies
formations of igneous or
m eta m Orphic origin.
-- Few fractures or faults
in the area
-- Very low to low mineral
content— soft waters of the
East and Southeast
-- OTHER
10
-- Agricultural area
primarily overlies forma-
tions of igneous or
metamorphic origin with
occasional areas above
marine deposits
-- Few fractures or faults.
-- Low to moderate mineral
content — soft waters.
-- OTHER
7
-- Agricultural area overlies
marine deposits
-- Faulting common.
-- Moderate to high mineral
content — hard waters of
mountain states, deserts.
and Great Plains
- OTHER
3
-- Agricultural area overlies
marine deposits of recent
origin.
-- Fractures and faulting very
common in the area
-- High to very high mineral
content Soils of manne origin.
Salty ground water and springs.
Mineral springs.
Saltwater intrusion.
- OTHER
2 Precipitation
and
irrigation
requirements
-- Average crop water consumption
is equal to or less than
average precipitation.
-- Minimal irrigation required
-- OTHER
8
-- Average crop water
consumption is between
5 & 10% more than average
precipitation.
-- Moderate irrigation req'd
-- OTHER
6
-- Average crop water consump-
tion is between 10 & 25%
more than precipitation
-- Considerable irrigation
required.
- OTHER
4
-- Average crop water consump-
tion exceeds average
precipitation by more than
25%.
-- Maximal irrigation required
- OTHER
3. Location of
watercourse
in watershed
-- Near headwaters
-- OTHER
9
-- Not far from headwaters
-- OTHER
7
-- Moderate distance from
headwaters
- OTHER
5
-- Far from headwaters
-- OTHER
3
4 Appearance
of water's
edge (shore-
line or
banks)
-- No evidence of salt crusts
-- OTHER
9
-- Some evidence of white,
crusty deposits on banks.
-- OTHER
6
-- Numerous localized patches
of white, crusty deposits
on banks.
-- OTHER
4
-- Most of the pond or stream
bank covered with a thick,
white, crusty deposit Salt
"feathering" on posts abundant
-- OTHER
1
5 Appearance
of aquatic
vegetation
-- No evidence of wilting,
toxicity, or stunting
-- OTHER
10
-- Minimal wilting and
toxicity, bleaching,
leaf burn.
Little if any stunting.
-- OTHER
7
-- Stream or pond vegetation
may show wilted and toxic
symptoms— bleaching, leaf
burn.
-- Presence of some
salt-tolerant species.
-- OTHER
3
-- Evidence of severe
wilting, toxicity, or
stunting
- - Presence of only
the most salt-tolerant
species or complete
absence of vegetation
-- OTHER
6 Streamside
vegetation
-- Very few species.
-- OTHER
8
-- Few salt tolerant species.
Refer to list below*.
-- OTHER
7
-- Increasing dominance of
salt-tolerant species
-- OTHER
5
-- Vegetation almost totally
salt-tolerant species or
absence of vegetation
- OTHER
3
OPTIONAL
7. Animal
teratology
(birth defects
& tumors in
fish and
other animals)
-- No birth defects or tumors
-- OTHER
10
-- Minimal birth defects &
tumors occuring in the
population randomly.
-- OTHER
6
-- Some birth defects &
tumors.
- OTHER
1
-- Considerable numbers
of birth defects &
tumors.
-- OTHER
*Salt-tolerant species include greasewood. alkali sacaton. fourwing saltbush. shadscales. saltgrass. tamarisk (salt cedar), galleta. western wheatgrass. crested
wheat, mat saltbush. reed canarygrass. and rabbitbrush.
1 Add the circled Rating Item scores to get a total for the field sheet TOTAL [
2 Check the ranking for this site based on the total field score Check "excellent" if the score totals at least 47 Check "good" if the score falls between 32 and 46.
etc Record your total score and rank (excellent good, etc ) in the upper right-hand corner of the field sheet If a Rating Item is "fair" or "poor." complete Field
Sheet 5B, or 5B 2
RANKING Excellent (47-54) [ ] Good (32-46) [ ] Fair (15-31) [ ] Poor (14 or less) [
RANKING (optional) Excellent (55-64) [ Good (35-54) [ Fair (16-34) [ Poor (1 5 or less) [
39
Figure 8-4
Salinity
FIELD SHEET 5B 2 : SALINITY
INDICATORS FOR SALINE SEEPS
Evaluator County/State Date : Practices
Saline Seep Evaluated Seep Location Total Score/ Rank : from
Rating Item Excellent Good Fair : Poor Appendix E
(Circle one number among the four choices in each row which BEST describes the conditions of the field or
area being evaluated If a condition has characteristics of two categories, you can "split" a score.)
1. Geology
-- Agricultural area overlies
formations of igneous or
metamorphic origin.
-- Few fractures or faults
in the area.
-- OTHER
10
-- Agricultural areas
primarily overlies forma-
tions of igneous or
metamorphic origin with
occasional areas above
marine deposits.
-- Few fractures or faults.
-- OTHER
7
-- Agricultural area overlies
marine deposits.
-- Faulting common
-- OTHER
3
-- Agricultural area over-
lies marine deposits of
recent origin.
Fractures and faulting
very common in the
area.
-- OTHER
2. Precipitation
and irrigation
requirements
-- Average crop water
consumption is equal to
or less than average
precipitation.
-- OTHER
8
-- Average crop water
consumption is between
5 and 10% more than
average precipitation.
-- OTHER
6
-- Average crop water
consumption is between
10 and 25% more than
precipitation.
-- OTHER
4
-- Average crop water
consumption exceeds
average precipitation by
more than 25%.
-- OTHER
3 Cropping
system
-- Crop rotation consists of
annual crops with maximum
consumptive water use.
-- OTHER
8
-- Crop rotation consists of
annual crops.
-- OTHER
6
-- Crop rotation contains a
biannual fallow period.
-- Crops with maximum
water consumptive use
grown.
-- OTHER
4
-- Crop rotation contains
a biannual fallow
period.
-- OTHER
2
17,37,68,
72
4. Field
appearance,
including
salt crusts
-- Downslope fields exhibit
even-appearing crop growth.
High yields are common for
the area.
-- OTHER
9
-- Downslope areas of field
or downslope fields
exhibit even crop growth,
but of reduced yield for
the area.
-- OTHER
7
-- Downslope areas of field
or downslope fields have
uneven growth of crops
with patches of crops
significantly stunted.
-- Occasionally white crust
occurs in these patches.
-- OTHER
3
-- Downslope areas of
fields have bare spots
not accounted for by
soil variations. Bare
spots occur in highly
saline soils. White
crust common.
-- OTHER
1
1 Add the circled Rating Item scores to get a total for the field sheet. TOTAL [ ]
2. Check the ranking for this site based on the total field score. Check "excellent" if the score totals at least 30. Check "good" if the score falls between 20 and 29.
etc Record your total score and rank (excellent, good, etc.) in the upper right-hand corner of the field sheet. If a Rating Item is "fair" or "poor," find the practices
in the right-hand column to help remedy the conditions
RANKING Excellent (30-35) [ ] Good (20-29) [ ] Fair ( 8-19) [ ] Poor ( 7 or less) [ ]
40
3. Location of watercourses in watershed ( Refer to Field Sheet
5A, rating item 3. figure 8-3).
In geologic regions where the soils are underlain by salt-
bearing layers, the salinity of receiving watercourses in-
creases with the distance from the headwaters. The salinity is
least near the headwaters, where there has been little oppor-
tunity for salt loading or salt concentration, and greatest
downstream, where effects of these two processes are max-
imized. Generally , salt loading is the major cause of salinity
increases in the arid and semiarid regions of the United
States. Salinity in the Colorado River ranges from an average
of less than 50 milligrams per liter (mg/1) in the headwaters
to 825 mg/1 at Imperial Dam and 950 mg/1 in Mexico (ref.
8-3. 8-6. 8-7).
4. Appearance of water's edge (shoreline or banks) (Refer to
Field Sheet 5A. rating item 4. figure 8-3).
The most obvious indicator of excessive salinity is the
presence of white, crusty deposits of salts. These deposits
may occur at the high water mark along the banks of a
stream or river, or at seepage points along a high bank or
cliff. "Salt feathering." the crystallizing of salt in feathery-
like patches on posts and tree stumps, is another indicator of
highly saline conditions.
5. Appearance of aquatic vegetation (Refer to Field Sheet 5A.
rating item 5. figure 8-3).
Salt pollution becomes a problem when the concentration
of salts in the soil/water solution interferes with the growth
of plants. Table salt (sodium chloride) is often the dominant
salt present. It affects plants in two ways: (1) By increasing
Figure 8-5
Generalized Diagram of Saline Seep, Recharge Area, and the Substrata Formation That Contributes to a
Saline Seep (Ref. 8-10).
Precipitation
(in excess of crop use)
RECHARGE AREA
SALTY SUBSTRATA
permeability yg\:>»f^-->' «. » *
F^^IP^^WATER TABLE
7 ^^y^ -ff^HT *~
LOW HYDRAULIC CONDUCTIVITY ZONE
/'//'///////////'///
41
the osmotic pressure, it reduces the amount of water that
plants can take up, leading to stunted growth and reduced
yields; (2) At high concentrations it causes toxic effects, such
as leaf tip and marginal leaf burn, chlorosis (bleaching), or
defoliation (ref. 8-8).
6. Streamside vegetation (Refer to Field Sheet 5 A, rating item
6, figure 8-3).
As the salinity of water increases, salt-intolerant species
die and are replaced by more salt-tolerant types. Examples of
the latter are greasewood, alkali sacaton, fourwing saltbush,
shadscales, saltgrass, tamarisk (salt cedar), galleta, western
wheatgrass, mat saltbush, reed canarygrass, and rabbitbrush.
Some emergent rooted aquatics, such as cattails, appear to be
tolerant of even the highest concentration of salts.
7. Animal teratology (birth defects) (Refer to Field Sheet 5A,
rating item 7, figure 8-3).
Severe toxic effects and birth defects or tumors in
animals have been observed in isolated areas (e.g., Kesterson
Reservoir in California) because of high concentrations of
toxic compounds, selenium, or flouride. Some newly hatched
ducks and other birds in the Kesterson Reservoir, which had
elevated levels of selenium, lacked ears, eyes, beaks, wings,
or legs (ref. 8-9).
8. Salinity indicators (Refer to Field Sheet 5B2, figure 8-4.
Field Sheet 5E$2 should only be used in areas where the geol-
ogy makes saline seeps possible.)
A white salty crust can be an indicator of a saline seep.
Saline seeps are in those localities where saline water sur-
faces downslope of its recharge area. The seeping water
results from excess root zone moisture that percolates
through salt-bearing layers. Water, leaching below the root
zone, carries dissolved salt to the surface downslope of the
area of infiltration. These areas are common in the Northern
Great Plains Region (Montana, North Dakota, and South
Dakota), where precipitation percolates through salt-laden
glacial till into ground water, emerging later in a discharge
area at another location (fig. 8-5).
Indicators for saline seeps are land-based, not water-
based. Rating items 1 and 2 approximate those discussed
above in field sheet 5A, "Salinity Indicators for Receiving
Waters." Other indicators include the type of cropping sys-
tem (rating item 3) and the appearance of field crops down-
slope of the recharge area (rating item 4). Saline seep areas
will have uneven growth of crops with some significantly
stunted patches or bare spots. White salt crusts occur in oc-
casional patches in areas considered to be "fair," and are
common under "poor" conditions.
Since saline seeps result from excess moisture in the soil
profile, it is important to consider the cropping system
thoroughly. There will be less "seeping" when crops with
the maximum consumptive water use are planted. This is es-
pecially true when crops are grown on an annual basis; i.e.,
when the fields are not allowed to lie fallow.
42
APPENDIX A
Water Quality Procedures
• Sequential Comparison Index
• Beck"s Biotic Index
• Floating Body Technique
Sequential Comparison Index
The Sequential Comparison Index (SCI) is a simple stream
quality method, based upon distinguishing organisms by color,
size, and shape, and requires no taxonomic expertise (ref. 8-4).
The only needs are to be able to distinguish the number of
different types (taxa) of organisms and the number of "runs" in
samples containing less than 250 organisms. A diversity index
(DI) is obtained by dividing the number of runs by the number of
specimens. This index is multiplied by the number of taxa to give
the final DI. DI values of 12 or above are indicative of healthy
streams with high diversity and a balanced density. Polluted
streams typically have DI v alues of 8 or less.
Sample analysis. There are many methods of biological speci-
men analysis. Diversity indices are useful because they condense
considerable data into a single numerical value. The SCI is a
simple diversity method which can be used by a non-biologist.
The following is a brief summary of the SCI evaluation. For
detailed information see Cairns" article on simple biological as-
sessment (ref. 5-5).
Bottom sample collection and preservation. Bottom samples
from a watercourse or water body should be collected w ith an
appropriate sampler. If a bottom sampler is not available,
trowels or shovels can be used to collect the sample. Place the
material collected into a tub or bucket. Dilute the material with
water and swirl. Pour it through a U.S. Standard #30 sieve or a
30-mesh screen. Remove rocks, sticks, and other artifacts after
carefully checking for clinging organisms. Wash the screened
material into a container and preserve it in 10 percent formalin
or 70 percent ethanol (ethyl alcohol). Organisms may be sorted
from the sample detritus in the field with forceps or at the
laboratory. It is often desirable, prior to preserving the sample,
to place rocks, sticks, and other objects in a white pan partially
filled with water. Many of the animals will float free from the
objects or can be removed with forceps. All samples should be
stored in a suitable container and preserved with 10 percent for-
malin or 70 percent ethanol. The samples should be labeled with
the location, date, type of sampler used, name of collector, and
other pertinent information.
SCI Procedure.
1 . Randomize specimens in a jar by swirling.
2. Pour specimens into a lined white enamel pan.
3. Disperse clumps of specimens by pouring preservativ e or
water on the clumps.
4. Determine the number of runs in the sample by comparing
two specimens at a time. The current specimen need only be
compared with the previous one. If it is similar, it is part of
the same run. If not, it is part of a new run (fig. A-l). A
2X magnifying glass or a low-powered binocular microscope
is needed for this operation.
5. Determine the total number of specimens in the sample.
6. Calculate DI ! :
_ number of runs
DIj =
number of specimens
7. Record the number of different taxa observed. This does not
require a specialist in taxonomy. Most bottom fauna organ-
isms are fairly easily div ided into recognizable entities by
non-biologists. Identification of the organisms is not neces-
sary: A 2X magnify ing glass or a low powered binocular
microscope is needed for this operation.
8. Determine from figure A-2 the number of times (N) the SCI
examination must be repeated on the sample to be 95 percent
confident that the mean DI] is within a desired percentage
of the true value for DIj. In most pollution work involv ing
gross differences, line A of figure A-2 should be used.
9. After determining N from figure A-2. rerandomize the sam-
ple and repeat the SCI examination on the same sample N-l
times. Calculate the average DI j by the following equation:
N
10. DI-p is a diversity index value. It represents species diversity
and. therefore, health of a watercourse. Calculate DIj by
the following equation:
qj^. = DIj x No. of Taxa
1 1 . Repeat the above procedure for each sample collection.
The above procedure should only be used on samples containing
fewer than 250 specimens. Healthy streams with a high diversity
and a balanced density tend to have DIj values above 12. Pol-
luted communities tend to have DIj values of 8 or less. Inter-
mediate values have been found in semipolluted streams.
To determine if different bottom-fauna community structures
are significantly different from each other, calculate the 95 per-
cent confidence intervals around each DIj value. If the intervals
do not overlap, then the community structures are significantly
different. For example, if sampling station "A*" has a DIj
value of 25, station "B*' has a DI-p value of 10, and line A of
figure A-2 is used, then the 95 percent confidence interval
would be 20 percent, or 10 percent on either side of the deter-
mined DI-j- value. Station "A" has 95 percent confidence inter-
val for the DIj value from 22.5 to 27.5 (20 percent of 25 =5).
Station "B" has a 95 percent confidence interval for the DIj
value from 9 to 1 1 (20 percent of 10 = 2). The 95 percent con-
fidence intervals do not overlap, and therefore the bottom fauna
communities at the two stations are significantly different.
The SCI examination is a useful tool. It requires no taxo-
nomic expertise. It is easy to perform and produces results
quickly. It should not be used to represent or replace other more
accurate techniques requiring a person trained in aquatic
biology.
43
Figure A-1
Determination of Runs in Sequential Comparison
Index
Figure A-2
Confidence Limits for Dl 1 Values.
Dl
1.0 -
0.9 -
0.8
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2 -
0.1 -
o
A: use line A to be 95%
confident the mean
of is within 20%
of true value.
B: use line B to be 95%
confident the mean
of is within 10%
of true value.
1 2 3 4 5
6 7
(N)
8 9 10 11 12 13 14
Beck's Biotic Index
Beck's Biotic Index (ref. 3-10) was developed primarily for
use in Florida and assumes taxonomic expertise, but it can be
used with generic level identification when less sensitivity is ac-
ceptable. This system can be used to indicate both the magnitude
and probable cause of environmental stress. Beck developed the
methodology to categorize stream macro-invertebrates (large
animals without backbones, ref. A-1).
Three categories (table A-3, fig. A-4) are defined below:
Class I Organisms (Sensitive or Intolerant)
Organisms that exhibit a rapid response to aquatic environ-
mental changes and are killed, driven out of the area, or as a
group are substantially reduced in number when their environ-
ment is degraded.
Class II Organisms (Facultative)
Organisms that have the capability to live under varying
conditions; e.g., a facultative anaerobe is an organism that
although usually and normally lives in the presence of free oxy-
gen, can live in absence of free oxygen. Most survive in areas
where organic pollution is producing eutrophication or "enrich-
ment" of the aquatic ecosystem.
Class III Organisms (Tolerant)
Organisms capable of withstanding adverse conditions within
the aquatic environment.
According to this approach, which assumes that there are
not naturally occurring limiting factors, an undisturbed commu-
nity will include representatives of the majority of the groups
contained in Class I as well as some representatives of Classes
II and III. By contrast, a sample which consists mainly of Class
II organisms is being "limited or impacted by either natural
factors, such as low flow, homogenous substrate, etc. or is im-
pacted due to human activities. Waters dominated by Class IE
organisms are probably adversely affected by organic pollution.
The structure of the benthic (bottom) invertebrate com-
munity in waterways polluted by organic waste differs quanti-
tatively from invertebrate communities in unpolluted waterways.
That is, organic pollution results not just in a reduction in species
richness (the total number of benthic groups), but also in a
stimulation in density (the total number of organisms collected
per sample).
By contrast, waterways impacted with toxic materials, such
as pesticides or acid mine drainage, show decreases both in rich-
ness and density. Sediment causes a greater reduction in density
than in richness. Because of the above differences and because
there are often dominant organisms characteristic of sediment
pollution, it is possible to differentiate sediment stress from the
stresses of toxic materials and organic wastes.
For this type of investigation, a dip net is used to take a
"kick" sample, which is sufficient to obtain a representative
sample of the organisms present. With this procedure the net is
placed upright on the bottom in an area of swift water, and the
stream bottom upstream of the net is sufficiently disturbed to
dislodge any organisms located there. The dislodged organisms
will be carried by the current into the net and captured. Any
rocks that can be overturned should be turned and any clinging
organisms collected.
Mathematical expression.
BI
where:
2nj +
n II
BI = Beck's Biotic Index
nj = the number of Class I species identified from the
samples
njj = the number of Class II species identified from the
samples
44
Table A-3.— Benthic macroin vertebrates classed according to
Beck's Biotic Index Classes (ref. A-2)
Invertebrate Form
Caddisflies: Trichoptera
Hydropsychidae 1
Hydroptilidae 1
Limnephilidae 1
Leptoceridae 1
Helicopsychiade 1
Psychomyiidae 1
Goeridae 1
Stoneflies: Plecoptera
Perlidae 1
Perlodidae 1
Mayflies: Ephemeroptera
Baetidae 1
Heptageniidae 1
Ephemeridae 1
Helligrammites
Corydalidae 1
Freshwater Naiads (Clams)
Unionidae 1
Beetles: Coleoptera
Elmidae (Riffle Beetle) 1
Psephenidae (Water Penny) 1
Damselflies: Odonata
Coenagrionidae 2
Agrionidae 2
Dragonflies: Odonata
Aeschnidae 2
Comphidae 2
Libellulidae 2
Recommended Level of Taxonomic Identification. This index
should be used in conjunction with species level identification to
enhance the sensitivity of the index in detecting ecosystem per-
turbations. The use of generic level identification requires the
assignment of a tolerance classification to a genus, correspond-
ing to the most tolerant species within that genus, and leads to
decreased index sensitivity. Generic level identification can be
utilized when less sensitivity is acceptable or when species iden-
tification is not possible. For example, species taxonomy within
the Chironomidae (midges) can be so difficult as to preclude its
use.
Geographic Applicability. This index has not been widely
employed outside of the State of Florida.
Computational Devices Required. A simple desk-top calcula-
tor is recommended for the calculation of values.
Statistical Evaluation. Statistical evaluation of index values
can be inappropriate or present interpretation difficulties. Tests
of raw data (Chi square, correlation, t-test, etc.) are recom-
mended.
Class
Crayfish
Astacidae 2
Flatworms
Planaridae 2
Crane Flies
Tipulidae 2
Gill Snails
Pleuroceridae 2
Horse Flies
Tabanidae 2
Isopods
Asellidae (Aquatic
Sowbugs) 2
Blackflies
Simuliidae 2
Air-Breathing Snails
Physidae 3
Ancylidae (Limpets) 3
Aquatic Earthworms
Oligochaeta 3
Midges
Chironomidae 3
Leeches
Hirundinea 3
Moth flies
Psychodidae 3
Use of the index.
1. Level of sampling required. Sample size can be limited, de-
pending on the degree of organic pollution encountered. Or-
ganically polluted conditions demand more extensive and
precise collection and analysis of data to ensure that sensitive
animals have not been overlooked.
2. Recommended form of data reduction. Absolute estimates of
generic and/or specific representation should be entered
direcdy into the computational formula.
3. Modes of data display. Index values can be displayed in
either tabular and/or graphical form in a site or locale-
specific manner.
4. Interpretation. Index values will range from to approxi-
mately 40; the lower the index value, the greater the organic
stress. See table below. An index value of 10 is the lowest
value accepted as indicative of clean water without additional
discussion.
Class Invertebrate Form
45
Figure A-4
Macroinvertebrates According to Beck's Biotic Index Classes (Ref. A-2).
1 . Intolerant (sensitive) to pollution:
2. Facultative - Can tolerate some pollution:
2
ingernail
Clams
3. Tolerant to pollution:
46
Beck's Bio tic Index Values
Index Value Description
Stream grossly polluted
1 to 5 Stream moderately polluted
6 to 9 Stream clean, but with a monotonous
habitat and instream velocity
10 or greater Stream clean
Floating Body Technique
The Floating Body Technique measures water flow velocity,
which is calculated by measuring the time taken for a marker to
travel a known distance downstream.
Procedure. A stretch of a watercourse should be selected which
is approximately straight. The compass direction of this stretch
should be measured. Using the compass direction, a 90 degree
angle is laid out so it crosses the stream. This is most con-
veniently done by locating a landmark on the distant side of the
stream, and moving up- or downstream to locate (and mark) the
point at which a 90 degree angle exists. A distance should then
be measured downstream to the other end of the straight stretch,
and a similar 90 degree angle laid out. The marker or dye is
tossed into the stream above the initial point and then timed to
see how long it takes to get from one point to the other. If dye
is used, the time is measured until the front part of the dye stain
arrives. Velocity is calculated as distance divided by time.
When the velocity measured is the peak velocity of the
stream (usually at the surface in the center), it is possible to cal-
culate an approximate average for velocity for the stream, as-
suming typical cross section. A common average is 85 percent
of the maximum current velocity.
Accuracy. This technique can be moderately accurate. The
major sources of error are caused by the marker floating out of
the desired path. If the maximum current velocity is desired, the
marker may tend to end up in eddies along the way, rather than
staying in the maximum velocity portion of the stream. This
source of error can be reduced by making repeated measure-
ments or by using dye as the marker. Calculations of average
stream velocity from a measured maximum velocity are in error
if the correction factor is inappropriate. Deviations from the 85
percent factor mentioned above are common.
Application Notes. This technique is inexpensive. A crew size
of one is suitable for slow moving streams, but a crew size of
two is necessary to signal when the marker has passed the end-
ing point if the stream moves too fast for one crew member to
move from the starting point to the ending point. It is most ap-
propriate where streams are relatively large and have a smooth
slope.
4-
APPENDIX B
Aquatic Organisms
Algae Important in Water Supplies (ref. B-l).
• Taste and odor algae
• Filter clogging algae
• Polluted water algae
• Clean water algae
• Plankton and other surface water algae
• Algae growing on reservoir walls
Types of Freshwater Algae (ref. B-2).
Simple Assessment of Bottom-Dwelling Insects (ref. A-2).
SCS Key to the Major Invertebrate Species of Stream Zones
(ref. B-3).
Diagrams of Common Fish Species (ref. B-4).
Detection of Escherichia coli in water samples (ref. B-5).
Table B-l. — Taste and odor algae.
Linear
Species Names
Magnifications
Anabaena plactonica
250
Anacystis cyanea
250
Aphanizomenon flos-aquae
250
Asterionella gracillima
250
Ceratium hirundinella
250
Dinobryon divergens
250
Gomphosphaeria lacustris,
kuetzingianum type
500
Hydrodictyon reticulatum
10
Mallomonas caudata
500
Nitella gracilis
1
Pandorina mo rum
500
Peridinium cinctum
500
Staurastrum paradoxum
500
Synedra ulna
250
Synura uvella
500
Tabellaria fenestrata
250
Uroglenopsis americana
125
Volvox aureus
125
Table B-2.— Filter clogging algae
Linear
Species Names
Magnifications
Anabaena flos-aquae
500
Anacystis dimidiate
1000
Asterionella formosa
1000
Chlorella pyrenoidosa
5000
Closterium moniliferum
250
Cyclotella meneghiniana
1500
Cymbella ventricosa
1500
Diatoma vulgare
1500
Dinobryon sertularia
1500
Fragilaria crotonensis
1000
Melosira granulata
1000
Navicula graciloides
1500
Oscillatoria princeps (top)
250
Oscillatoria chalybea (middle)
250
Oscillatoria splendida (bottom)
500
Palmella mucosa
1000
Rivularia dura
250
Spirogyra porticalis
125
Synedra acus
500
Tabellaria flocculosa
1500
Trachelomonas crebea
1500
Tribonema bombycinum
500
Table B-3.— Polluted water algae.
Linear
Species Names
Magnifications
Agmenellum quadriduplicatum,
tenuissima type
1000
Anabaena constricta
500
Anacystis montana
1000
Arthrospira jenneri
1000
Carteria multifilis
2000
Chlamydomonas reinhardi
1500
Chlorella vulgaris
2000
Chlorococcum humicola
1000
Chlorogonium euchlorum
1500
Euglena viridis
1000
Gomphonema parvulum
3000
Lepocinclis texta
500
Lyngbya digueti
1000
Nitzschia palea
2000
Oscillatoria chlorina (topi
1000
Oscillatoria putrida (middle)
1000
Oscillatoria lauterbornii (bottom)
1000
Phacus pyrum
1500
Phormidium autumnale
500
Pyrobotrys stellata
1500
Spirogyra communis
250
Stigeoclonium tenue
500
Tetraedron muticum
1500
48
Figure B-1
Algae Important in Water Supplies.
Taste and Odor Algae
49
Figure B-2
50
Figure B-3
Figure B-4
Clean Water Algae.
52
Table B— 4.— Clean water algae
Table B-6.— Algae growing on reservoir walls.
Linear
Species Names
Magnifications
: : ;
Agmenellum quadnduplicatum. glauca type
250
Ankistrodesmus falcatus var. acicularis
1 LOAJ
Calothnx parietina
son
Chromuhna rosanoffi
AHfY)
Lrirysococcus rutescens
1 fWl
4uuu
Cladophora glomerata
1 Cif\
1 uu
Coccochloris stagnina
1 IHJU
Cocconeis placentula
1 aah
Cyclotella bodanica
JUU
Entophysalis lemaniae
Hildenbrandia rivularis
Lemanea annulata
1
Meridion circulare
1UUU
Micrasterias truncata
Microcoleus subtorulosus
son
Navicula gracilis
luou
Phacotus lenticulans
Rinnulana nobihs
D hi7nnrlnnni m h m ol \. nh i c\ i m
XXlllZ-LMlLlOillUlll llldUtil>LllllLUlll
250
Rhodomonas lacustris
3000
Staurastrum punctulatum
1000
Surirella splendida
500
Ulothrix aequalis
250
Table B-5.— Plankton and other surface water algae.
Linear
Species Names
Magnifications
Actinastrum gracillimum
1000
Botryococcus braunii
1000
Coelastrum microporum
500
Cylindrospermum stagnale
250
Desmidium grevillei
250
Euastrum oblongum
500
Eudorina elegans
250
Euglena gracilis
1000
Fragilaria capucina
1000
Gomphosphaeria aponina
1500
Gonium pectorale
500
Micractinium pusillum
1000
Mougeotia scalaris
250
Nodularia spumigena
500
Oocystis borgei
1000
Pediastrum bory anum
125
Phacus pleuronectes
500
Scenedesmus quadricauda
1000
Sphaerocystis schroeteri
500
Stauroneis phoenicenteron
500
Stephanodiscus hantzschii
1000
Zygnema sterile
250
Linear
Species Names
Magnifications
— Z . : "
Achnanthes microcephala
1500
Audouinella violacea
250
Batrachospermum moniliforme
J
Bulbochaete insignis
125
Chaetophora elegans
250
Chara globularis
4
Cladophora crispata
125
Compsopogon coemleus
llj
C \ mbella pn istrata
-\ c r\
25U
Draparnaldia glomerata
125
Gomphonema geminatum
250
Lyngbya lagerheimii
1000
Microspora amoena
250
Oedogonium suecicum
Phormidium uncinatum
250
Ph> toconis botry oides
1000
Stigeoclonium lubricum
250
Tetraspora gelatinosa
125
Tolypothrix tenuis
500
Ulothrix zonata
250
Vaucheria sessilis
125
53
Figure B-5
Plankton and Other Surface Water Algae.
54
Figure B-6
55
Figure B-7
Types of Freshwater Algae.
Algal scums (various species) grow on the bottom or on and
around objects. Later, they rise to the surface in large mats,
whereupon they die and decay. Two forms are present, the
branched form (upper) and the single filamentous (below). The
branched form is green to grayish-green and coarse feeling
like wet cotton. The single filament is slimy to the touch and
green-to-brown in color.
Waterlily (Nymphaea)
The large, circular, waxy floating leaves are deeply notched
and borne on tough, elastic stems. The large white, pink,
yellow, or blue flowers, with 12^40 petals, float on the sur-
face with the leaves. The thick inter-twining roots of this
plant form extensive mats over the bottom.
56
Figure B-7
Leaf and stem
Lotus
Leaves. Circular 12-24 in. in diameter, with the centers
"cupped." Usually they stand up out of the water, but im-
mature leaves lie flat on the surface.
Stem. 1/4 to 1/2 in. in diameter, stiff and upright.
Flowers. 4.5 to 10 in. in diameter, pale yellow in color.
Special characteristics. The large, cupped leaves which stand
upright are distinctive and characteristic of no other native
plant.
WatermUfoil (Myriophyllum)
Leaves. Upper aerial ones elliptical with scalloped edges, giving
it a prickly appearance, and dark green in color. Late in
summer they turn red. Submerged leaves much longer and
wider. Finely divided, giving the leaves a feather-like ap-
pearance.
Stems. Thick, reddish to brown, hollow or loosely pith filled.
Special characteristics. The upper leaves of this plant projecting
3-5 inches above the surface of the pond make it easily iden-
tified and separated from Parrots Feather.
Habitat. Shallow water 0-5 ft. deep.
57
Figure B-7
Continued.
Coontail (Ceratophyllum)
A submerged, brittle herb with leaves in whorls about the
main stem, which is generally forked once to several times.
The leaves are very fine and forked (sometimes divided into
threes) at the tips. These "tiplets" have a "spiny" appear-
ance because of their wavy margins. This plant is "rooted"
in the spring and early summer and free-floating in the late
summer and early fall. The seeds of this plant are taken by
waterfowl.
Naiads (Najas)
Submerged herbs with opposite or whorled, narrow to thread-
like leaves. The bases of the leaves sheathe the stem. The
main stem is branched and has fibrous roots. The seeds are
small and ellipitical and are found in the axil of the leaves.
This plant is a favored food of many ducks.
Fan wort (Cabomba)
Delicate, branched, submerged herbs with finely divided
leaves that are opposite or in whorls. Occasionally, the upper
floating leaves are produced. These are small, oblong, and
attached at the center of the blade. The flowers are small and
have three white to yellow petals.
58
Figure B-7
Pond Weeds (Potamogeton)
Leaves. Upper floating ones elliptical to oval, generally small
(1/2-2 in). One species has very large leaves (3-10 in long).
The surface is waxy. In some cases, the upper leaves may be
missing. Lower leaves are very narrow. 1-2 mm (0.04-0.08
in) or less and strap-like.
Stems. Thin, but strong, varying in length, according to water
depth. Always rooted.
Fruit. The small, cylindrical seed heads are on separate stalks,
sometimes appearing above the water or generally found in
the axil of the leaves. These seeds are avidly taken by ducks.
Special characteristics. The only plant having leaves this small
floating on the surface of the water.
Habitat. Any body of water.
Free Floating Plants
Duckweeds, (Lemna and Spirodela spp.)
Small. 1-12 mm (0.04^.7 in) long, free floating green
plants of various shapes, generally oblong, that have one to
many small rootlets hanging in the water and 1-15 "'nerves"
appearing on the top of the plants. Spirodela is larger and
may be purple on the underside. These plants are 1-8 mm
(0.04-0.3 in) long, oval in outline with a small pointed tip,
have many rootlets, and have 5-11 "nerves"' on the upper-
side. Lemna has 1-5 "nerves." one rootlet, and is green on
the underside and smaller, being 1-5 mm (0.04-0.2 in). Un-
der some conditions, these plants may have a reddish color.
It would be best to check them to prevent confusion with
water fern.
Duckmeal, (Wolffia and Wolfella spp.)
The tinest flowering plant in the world. 0.5-2mm (0.04-0.08
in) long, rootless, globular to ellipsoid in outline.
Waterfern (Azolla sp.)
Larger than the above. 0.5-1 cm (0.2-0.4 in) long, having
small overlapping leaves borne on a once-to-several times
forking stem. Several small roots hang in the water. At matu-
rity these plants are red. rosy pink, or reddish brown. Young
plants are green.
59
Figure B-7
Continued.
Elodea, or Waterweed (Anacharis)
Leaves. Narrow, gradually tapering to the tip. Borne either op-
posite each other in pairs, or in whorls of 4-5. Leaves of E.
densa are large and coarse; those of the other two species
smaller and more delicate.
Stems. Herbaceous, lax, and generally rooted; sometimes form
floating mats.
Flowers. Arise between the stem and leaves. Three petals are
present, and these are white or pinkish. Mainly spreads
vegetatively.
Special characteristics. These are the same plants sold in pet
stores for use in aquariums. Perennial, does not die back in
the winter.
Habitat. Shallow water of lakes or ponds.
Watershield (Brasenia)
The floating leaves are oval and the undersides reddish and
covered with a shiny covering. The stems are usually covered
with this coating also. The small flowers are reddish to pur-
ple and have 3-4 petals. Prefers ponds or slow-moving acid
water with a sandy bottom. Some diving ducks readily take
the seeds of this plant.
60
Figure B-7
Spatterdock, Yellow YVaterlily (Nuphar)
The large, waxy leaves are heart-shaped and may be upright
or floating on the surface. The stems are thick, strong, and
elastic. The small flowers are yellow and waxy in appear-
ance. This plant is found in the shallows out to a depth of
feet.
Alligatorweed {Alternanthera)
May be found growing upright on damp soil or growing as a
floating mat in water. Leaves roughly oval and opposite one
another on the stem. The bases of the leaves merge to form a
sheath which is slightly swollen. Leaves and stems succulent
and fleshy. Flowers white and resemble the flowers of white
clover. These are borne on a long stalk growing between the
stem and leaf. Seeds are not viable, and this plant reproduces
vegetatively from the nodes.
Carolina Watergrass i Hxdrochloa)
Leaves small (1-2 in long x 1/4 in wide), elliptical, grayish-
green to green in color. These are found mainly towards the
end of the stem and float on the surface. This plant can be
found growing next to the shore or in shallow water. May
form floating mats which can cover up small ponds. Rarely
fruits.
61
Figure B-7
Continued.
Smartweeds, Water Pepper (Polygonum) Plants inhabiting the
shallow water of a pond, with lance-shaped, alternate leaves.
At the base of each leaf is a sheath going around the stem
and topped with long, fine hairs. The flowers are pink,
white, or greenish and found in terminal spikes or on short,
lateral spikes originating between the leaf and the stem. The
seed is either triangular or lens-shaped in cross-section.
These seeds are a choice food for ducks.
Lizardstail (Saururus)
Succulent herbs with jointed stems and alternate drooping
heart-shaped leaves, found along the edges of the water. The
long, nodding, white-flowered spike is present during the
summer and easily distinguishes this plant.
Cattail (Typha)
Long, narrow, veinless, bluish-green leaves, sheathing at the
base of the plant, and the familiar seed head are enough to
identify this plant.
Arrow-arum (Peltandra) - Upper Left
The leaves are shaped like a barbed arrowhead and are borne
on thick fleshy stems. The yellow "flowers" are enclosed in
a green, partly opened, sac-like structure which terminates in
a wrinkled tip. The skin of the fruit is green, purplish, or
brown, and the seeds are enclosed in a gelatinous mass with-
in the fruit.
Arrowhead (Sagittaria) - Upper Right
The leaves are highly variable, but are generally arrowhead-
shaped, though the "barbs" may or may not be present, ac-
cording to the species and water depth. The small white
flowers are in whorls of three along the main stalk.
Pickerelweed (Pontedeiia) - Lower Left
The leaves are heart-shaped and are borne on thick stems.
The flowers are bluish and found in a terminal spike.
Note: In the case where the flowers are absent, these plants may
be differentiated by the veination of the leaves. See the illus-
tration.
62
Figure B-7
Stoneworts Muskgrass (Chara)
Actually a higher form of perennial algae. The 6-12 leaves
are cylindrical and arranged in whorls around the stems and
branches. Stems, branches, and leaves are very brittle, and
when crushed, emit a strong musk-like or ■"skunky" odor.
The "fruit" or oogonium appears as small black dots scat-
tered over the leaves of the plant. Variable in height but
generally not reaching the surface of the water. All parts of
the plant are eaten by waterfowl.
Simple assessment of bottom-dwelling insects (ref. A-2).
Immature forms of bottom-dwelling stream insects live
primarily in riffles— shallow, swift-flowing portions of a water-
course. Two major groups of aquatic insects should be present
in the upper watercourse reaches of all unpolluted waterways:
mayflies (fig. B-8) and caddisflies (fig. B-9). Mayflies have a
roachlike body , a thin hairlike tail, and six jointed legs. Caddis-
flies have a maggotlike body, no tail, and six jointed legs.
To sample these insects, use the following simple technique.
Remove three stones from a shallow , swift-flowing portion of
the watercourse. Each stone should be about six inches in di-
ameter. Place the stones in a bucket filled with stream water.
Brush the entire surface of each stone with your hands. If after
carefully examining the surface of each, you are satisfied that no
insects remain, then discard the stone. Pour the contents of the
bucket through a white handkerchief. Count the number of may-
flies and caddisflies. Using the following illustrations, identify
and count the number of insects belonging to the various groups.
If both mayflies and caddisflies are absent from the water-
course, then the watercourse is severely polluted. If only may-
flies or caddisflies are present, then the watercourse is probably
moderately polluted. If both may flies and caddisflies are present,
along with stoneflies (fig. B-10). then the stream is probably in
good-to-excellent condition. Stoneflies resemble mayflies in hav -
ing a roachlike body. tail, and six jointed legs. Mayfly legs
come to a fine point at the tips, whereas stonefly legs are tipped
with two hooks or claws.
Insect larvae, which are tolerant of pollution and might be
found in either clean or moderately polluted water, are black-
flies, bloodworm midges (chironomids). rat-tailed maggots, and
others. See also fig. A-4.
65
Figure B-8
Mayflies (Ephemeroptea).
3.183
Figures 3.183 through 3.188. Heptageniidae. 3.183 Spinadis,
lateral aspect (shown without legs and gills); nymph, dorsal
aspect: 3.184 Epeorus, 3.185 Arthroplea bipunctata; 3.186
Pseudiron, gill of 3rd abdominal segment; Anepeorus: 3.187
mandible, 3.188 dorsal aspect and left abdominal gill (3.183 af-
ter Flowers and Hilsenhoff 1975; 3.184 through 3.186, 3.188,
Illinois Natural History Survey, (INHS)).
3.250 3.251 3^252
' 3.253
Figures 3.250 through 3.254. Baetidae. Baetis nymph, dorsal
aspect: 3.250 B. macdunnoughi, 3.251 B. pygmaeus, 3.252 B.
intercalaris, 3.253 B. propinquus, 3.254 B. tricaudatus (all after
Morihara and McCafferty, 1979).
64
Figure B-9
Caddisflies (Tricoptera).
9.15
Figures 9.7 through 9.18. Family characters. Helicopsyche
borealis larva: 9.7 anal claw, lateral aspect. 9.8 larval case; 9.9
Brachycentrus, anal claw of larva, lateral aspect; 9.10 Leu-
cotrichia pictipes larva, dorsal aspect; 9.11 Limnephilus sub-
monilifer, head and thorax of larva, dorsal aspect; 9.12
9.17 918 9.1
Polxcentropus larva, lateral aspect; 9.13 Lepidostoma , head and
thorax of larva, dorsal aspect; 9.14 Hydroptila larva, lateral
aspect; 9.15 Ochrotrichia larva in purse case, lateral aspect; lar-
val head, dorsal aspect: 9.16 Leptocerus americanus, 9.17 Lim-
nephilus, 9.18 Lepidostoma (all INHS).
Figure B-10
Stoneflies (Plecoptera).
Antenna
Epicranial Arm
Epicranial Stem
Marginal Groove - *
Marginal Flange - -
Thoracic
2 claws — ~ '
No abdominal
gills
- Maxillary Palpus
Labrum
Median Ocellus
- -* Lateral Ocellus
^> > -.' Transverse
Occipital Ridge
Anal Gill - -f~-
4
Only 2 tails
r 1st segment
If- 2nd segment
" r 3rd segment
- Tarsus
fyHlw'ttr oiiifff*
^frflflniir'fV^iHi^T
5.2
5.3
Figures 5.1 through 5.3. Stonefly structure. 5.1 generalized
stonefly nymph, dorsal aspect. Abdominal segments 8 and 9 of
Phasganophora capitata nymphs, ventral aspect: 5.2 male, 5.3
female (all courtesy of the INHS).
65
Figure B-10
Stoneflies, continued.
Figures 5.87 through 5.91. Perlidae. Acroneuria nymph, dorsal
aspect: 5.87 A. mela, 5.88 A. lycorias, 5.89 A. evoluta, 5.980
A. perplexa, 5.91 A. filicis (all INHS).
66
Figure B-1 1
Key to the Major Inverte
CI.: PELECYPG
DOUBLE SHEL
l_
ABOUT V 2 INCH 2 1
7. Pill clam
Fa.: Sphaeriidae
(Spherium simile)
2. Ge.. Pisium
Fingernail clam
Freshw
Fa.: Un
Sub Fa
(Lamps
TWO PAI
FRONT PAIR OF WINGS
HORNY; CHEWING
MOUTHPARTS
I
Or.: COLEOPTERA
LARGE
POWERFUL
DIVER AND
SWIMMER
SMALL
VERY ACTIVE
AT SURFACE
24^
Dytlscus beetle
(Diving beetle)
Fa.: Dytiscus
Whirligig beetle
Fa.: Hydrophilid
Or.: HEMIPTEF
POSTERIOR BREATHING TUBE
Water scorpion
Fa.: Nepidae
UP TO 3 INCHES
SWIMS
Giant water bug
Fa.: Belostomidae
Backswit
Fa.. Noto
Figure B-11
Key to the Major Invertebrate Species of Stream Zones.
Ph.:
CI.: PELECYPODA
MOLLUSCA
I
WITH SHELLS
'
MACRO ORGANISM
CI.: GASTROPODA
DOUBLE SHELL
Sub CI. PROSOBRANCHIA
SINGLE SHELL
I
SEGMENTED BODY
1
WITHOUT SHELLS
I
ABOUT Vi INCH
1. Pill clam
Fa: Sphaeriidae
(Spherium simile)
2. Ge.: Pisium
Fingernail clam
Sub CI. PULMONATA
SPIRAL SHELL
COILED SHELL
I
CONICAL SHELL
Freshwater mussel
Fa.: Unionidae
Sub Fa.: Lampsilinae
(Lampsilis siliquoides)
Pond snail
Fa.: Bulimidae
Ge.: Paludestrina
Pouch snail
Fa.: Physidae (left)
Fa.: Lymnaea (right)
Orb snail
Fa.: Planorbidae
Ge.: Helisoma
Limpet
Fa.: Lancidae
Ge.: Lanx
UNSEGMENTED BODY
'
ASYMMETRICAL
. — L
ROUGH -TEXTURED;
PORES
SMOOTH;
NO PORES
RADIAL SYMMETRY:
FREE SWIMMING
I
RADIAL SYMMETRY
SESSILE
I
(I
BILATERAL SYMMETRY
Freshwater sponge
Or.: MONAXONIDA
Fa.: Spongillidae
Bryozoan colony
Ph.: BRYOZOA
Freshwater
jellyfish
(Medusa)
Or.: HYDROIDA
Hydra
Threadworm
Ph.: NEMATA
CI.: NEMATODA
Planarian
Or.: TRICLADIA
CI.: TURBELLARIA
Fa.: Planariidae
Ph.:
r
ARTHROPODA
OBVIOUS LEGS
I
Ph.: ARTHROPODA
THREE PAIRS OF LEGS
CI.: INSECTA
FOUR PAIRS OF LEGS
1
SMALL LARGE
TWO PAIRS OF WINGS
NO WINGS
FRONT PAIR OF WINGS
HORNY; CHEWING
MOUTHPARTS
■
Or.: COLEOPTERA
ONLY HALF OF FRONT
WINGS HORNY;
SUCKING MOUTHPARTS
LARGE
POWERFUL
DIVER AND
SWIMMER
I
SMALL
VERY ACTIVE
AT SURFACE
Or.: HEMIPTERA
I '
FOUND ON
SURFACE FILM
I
Whirligig beetle
Fa:. Hydrophilidae
LIVES IN
TUBES OR
CASE
FREE-LIVING
FOUND
UNDERWATER
Or.: HEMIPTERA
I
Watermite
Or: ACARINA
Fa.: Hydrachnidae
Fisher Spider
Or.: ARANEAE
Fa.: PISAURIDAE
TWO HOOKS
ON LAST SEGMENT
Caddislly larva
Or: TRICOPTERA
Fa.: Phreiganeidae
FIVE PAIRS OF
FALSE LEGS ON
ABDOMEN
Aquatic moth caterpillar
NO OBVIOUS LEGS
I
SOME APPENDAGES
I
CI.: INSECTA
NO OBVIOUS APPENDAGES
CI.: HIRUDINEA I CI.: OLIGOCHETA
POSTERIOR
BREATHING
TUBE
I
Or.: DIPTERA
BRIGHT
RED BODY
1
Mosquito laiva
Or.: DIPTERA
Fa.: Culicidae
Midge larva
("Bloodworm")
Fa.: Chironomidae
CI: CRUSTACEA
TRANSPARENT
BODY: SILVERY
AIR SACS
Phantom midge
larva L
(Glassworm)
Fa : Culicidae
Sub Fa.: Chaoborinae
I
SMOOTH
BODY:
SUCKERS
ROUND
BODY WITH
BRISTLES:
NO SUCKERS
"UBE-DWELLING
Rat-tailed midge
(Drone Fly)
Or.: DIPTERA
Fa.: Syrphidae
A.
Tubilex
("Bloodworm")
Bristle worm
Fa.: Naididae
MORE THAN FOUR PAIRS OF LEGS
LOBSTERLIKE
SIZE TO 5 INCHES
CYLINDRICAL BODY
CLAMLIKE 'SHELL'
POSTERIOR BREATHING TUBE
NO TAIL APPENDAGES
I Or.: NEUROPTERA
1
ONE TAIL APPENDAGE
NO BREATHING
TUBE
Wafer scorpion
Fa: Nepidae
UP TO 3 INCHES
LARGER: FOUND ON
OR IN SPONGES
LESS THAN INCH
Hellgrammite
(Larvae-Dcbson fly)
Fa.: Corydalidae
Spongillally larva
Sub Or: PLANIPENNIA
Fa.: Sisyridae
Alderlly nymph
Sub Or.: SIALODEA
Fa.: Sialidae
Crayfish (Gambarus)
Or: DECAPODA
Fa.: Astacidae
Ostracod
Or.: OSTRACODA
Fa.: Cypridae
BODY FLATTENED
TOP TO BOTTOM
BODY
FLATTENED
SIDE TO SIDE
Copepod
Or: COPEPODA
Fa.: Cyclopidae
Isopod
Or: ISOPODA
Fa.: Asellidae
(Asellus-Sowbug)
THREE-TAIL APPENDAGES
! Giant water bug
Fa: Belostomidae
I
SWIMS ON BACK
A
Backswimmer
Fa: Notonectidae
TWO-TAIL APPENDAGE
LONG. BRISTLELIKE
TAIL APPENDAGES
Corixid water boatman
Fa: Corixidae
Stonefly-larva
Or: PLECOPTERA
Fa.: Perlidae
Mayfly nymph
Or: EPHEMERIDA
Fa.: Ephemeridae
PLATELIKE
TAIL APPENDAGES
Damselfly nymph
Or: ODONATA
Fa.: Agrionidae
SHORT, INCONSPICUOUS
TAIL APPENDAGES
SWIMS WITH Y-SHAPED
ANTENNAE
Cladoceran
Or: BRANCHIPODA
Sub CI: ENTROMOSTRACA
Fa: Daphniidae
1
SWIMS WITH LEGS
Fa
Amphipod
Or: AMPHIPODA
Gammaridae
(Shrimp- scud)
Dragonfly nymph
Or: ODONATA
Fa.: Libellulidae
= Sensitive
= Intermediate
= Tolerant
LEGEND
Ph. = PHYLUM
CI. = CLASS
Or. = ORDER
Fa. = Family
Ge. = Genus
USDA - Soil Conservation Service 4-28-75
Figure B-12
Some Common Freshwater Fishes (Ref. B-4).
Alosa aestivalis (Mitchill)
Blueback herring
TYPE LOCALITY: New York (Mitchill 1815. Trans. Lit. Philos.
Soc. N.Y. 1:355-492).
SYSTEMATICS: Formerly placed in Pomolobus, synonymized
most recently under Alosa by Svetovidov (1 964. Copeia: 1 1 8-30).
Often confused with A. pseudoharengus.
Order Cluperformes
Family Clupeidae
Washington, D.C.. market ca. 23 cm SL (Jordan and Evermann
1900).
Alosa pseudoharengus (Wilson)
Aiewife
TYPE LOCALITY: Probably Delaware River at Philadelphia.
Philadelphia Co., PA (Wilson ca. 1811 in Rees' New Cyclopedia
9: no pagination).
SYSTEMATICS: Formerly placed in Pomolobus, most recently
synonymized with Alosa (Svetovidov 1964. Copeia: 118-30).
Often confused with A. aestivalis.
Order Clupeiformes
Family Clupeidae
Washington, D.C.. market ca. 26 cm SL (Jordan and Evermann
1900).
Alosa sapidissima (Wilson)
American shad
TYPE LOCALITY: Probably Delaware River at Philadelphia,
Philadelphia Co., PA (Wilson ca. 181 1 . in Rees' New Cyclopedia
9: no pagination).
SYSTEMATICS: Forms geographically disjunct species pair
with A. alabamae (Berry 1964. Copeia: 720-30). Menstic dif-
ferences seen between spawning populations inhabiting
various river systems (and their tributaries) along Atlantic coast
(Carscadden and Leggett 1 975. J. Fish. Res. Board Can. 32:653-
60 and included references).
Order Clupeiformes
Family Clupeidae
VA: Norfolk, ca. 43 cm SL (Jordan and Evermann 1900).
6?
Figure B-12
Continued.
Oncorhynchus gorbuscha (Walbaum)
Pink salmon
TYPE LOCALITY: Rivers of Kamchatka, USSR (Walbaum in
Artedi 1772. Genera Piscium 3:4-723).
SYSTEMATICS: Essentially unstudied, apart from Rounsefell's
(1962. Fishery Bull. 62:237-70) work on relationships between
Oncorhynchus species. Vladykov (1962. Bull. Fish. Res. Board
Can. 136:1-172) compared pyloric caeca in specimens from
North America and Japan. Taxonomic comparisons between
even and odd year stocks seem warranted.
Order Salmoniformes
ca. 53 cm SL (NMC).
Oncorhynchus tshawytscha (Walbaum)
Chinook salmon
TYPE LOCALITY: Rivers of Kamchatka, USSR (Walbaum in
Artedi 1792. Genera Piscium 3:4-723).
SYSTEMMATICS: Broad meristic variation within species, but
individual stocks usually uniform. Scott and Crossman (1973.
Freshwater Fishes of Canada) provided comparison of variation
between Pacific and introduced Lake Ontario populations.
Order Salmoniformes
Family Salmonidae
CA: Sacramento Co., American River, male, 64 cm SL (Moyle
1976).
Salmo gairdneri Richardson
Rainbow trout
TYPE LOCALITY: Mouth of Columbia River at Fort Vancouver,
WA (Richardson 1836. Fauna Boreali- Americana).
SYSTEMATICS: The "rainbow trout" is comprised of two major
groups, coastal rainbow trouts and redband trouts. The redband
trout, native to headwaters of McCloud River, CA, is closely
related to the golden trout of Kern River drainage, CA, S.
aguabonita. Oldest name for any member of redband trout group
is S. newberryi. Oldest name applied to any member of either
group is S. mykiss, proposed by Walbaum in 1792 for the
Kamchtakan trout. Many practical difficulties are involved if
gairdneri becomes synonym of mykiss.
Order Salmoniformes
Family Salmonidae
(N.C. Wildl. Resour. Comm. and NCSM)
70
Figure B-12
Salmo trutta Linneaus
Brown trout
TYPE LOCALITY: "Europe" (Linneaus 1758. Systema naturae,
Laurentii Salvn, Holmiae. 10th ed.. 1:1-824).
SYSTEMATICS: Subgenus Salmo. Rather variable within native
range and number of subspecies recognized. Hybridizes with
Salvelinus fontinalis in nature (hybrids called "tiger trout") and
artificially hybridized with other salmonids (Scott and Crossman
1973. Freshwater Fishes of Canada; Buss and Wright 1958.
Trans. Am. Fish. Soc. [1957] 87:172-81).
Order Salmonrformes EXOTIC
Family Salmonidae
(N.C. Wildl. Resour. Comm. and NCSM)
Cyprinus carpio Linnaeus
Common carp
TYPE LOCALITY: Europe (Linneaus 1758. Systema naturae,
Laurentii Salvn. Holmiae 10th ed., 1:1-824).
SYSTEMATICS: Subfamily Cyprininae, which does not include
native North American cyprinids. Hybridizes with goldfish.
Carassius auratus, another exotic cyprinine (Scott and Cross-
man 1973. Freshwater Fishes of Canada). Hubbs (in Blair [ed.]
1961. Vertebrate Speciation: A Symposium.) discussed Asiatic
genus Carassiops, possibly of ancient hybrid origin between C.
carpio and C. auratus.
Order Cypriniformes EXOTIC
Family Cyprinidae
MD: Charles Co.. Community Lake. 151 mm SL (NCSM).
Notemigonus crysoleucas (Mitchill)
Golden shiner
TYPE LOCALITY: New York (Mitchill 1814. Rept on Fishes of
New York: 1-30).
SYSTEMATICS: Possibly more closely related to certain
Eurasian cyprinids than to any North American group (Gosline
1974. Jap. J. Ichthyol. 21: 9-15). Three subspecies have been
recognized — N. c. crysoleucas in northeast and N. c. auratus
and N. c. bosci in south — but recent authors have not con-
sidered these valid. Variation in anal fin ray count appears to be
influenced by water temperature during development (Hubbs
1921. Trans. III. State Acad. Sci. 11: 147-51: Schultz 1927. Pap.
Mich. Acad. Sci. Arts Letts. [1 926] 7:41 7-32). Scott and Crossman
(1973. Freshwater Fishes of Canada) discussed and provided
additional data on geographic variation in this character.
Order Cypriniformes
Family Cyprinidae
MD: Anne Arundel Co.. Lake Waterford, 101 mm SL (NCSM).
_ 1
Figure B-12
Continued.
Notropis cornutus (Mitchill)
Common shiner
TYPE LOCALITY: Wallkill River, 4.8 km sw of New Paltz, Ulster
Co., NY (Mitchill 1817. Am. Mon. Mag. Crit. Rev. 1:289-90).
SYSTEM ATICS: Subgenus Luxilus, Gilbert (1 964. Bull. Fla. State
Mus. Biol. Sci. 8:95-194) reviewed systematics of species.
Hybridizes extensively with N. chrysocephalus (Gilbert 1961.
Copeia:181 -92). Based on blood protein patterns Menzel (1976.
Biochem. Syst. Ecol. 4:281 -93) considered N. cornutus and N.
chrysocephalus as subspecies. N. albeolus is also closely
related to N. cornutus and replaces it on middle Atlantic coast.
Order Cypriniformes
Family Cyprinidae
MD: Harford Co., Swan Creek, male, 88 mm SL (NCSM).
Rhinichthys atratulus (Hermann)
Blacknose dace
TYPE LOCALITY: "North America" (Hermann 1804. Observa-
tions Zoologicae, quibus novae complures, aliaeque anamalium
species descibuntur et illustrantur 31:1 -332).
SYSTEMATICS: Three subspecies distributed about as follows:
R. a. atratulus on Atlantic slope; ft a. meleagris in central and
northern interior; and ft a. obtusus (including nominal form
simus) from lower Ohio basin to upper Mobile drainage (Hubbs
1 936. Copeia: 1 24-25; Matthews et al. ms). Matthews et al. (1 979.
Abstr. 59th Ann. ASIH meetings) discussed intergradation be-
tween R. a. atratulus and ft a. obtusus in James River drainage,
VA.
Order Cyprinformes
Family Cyprinidae
MD: Charles Co., Zekiah Swamp, 51 mm SL (NCSM).
Catostomus commersoni (Lacepede)
White sucker
TYPE LOCALITY: None given (Lacepede 1803. Histoire
Naturelle Poissons 5:1 -803).
SYSTEMATICS: No comprehensive analysis of systematics
over entire range published, although numerous dwarf popula-
tions have received individual recognition (McPhail and Lindsey
1970. Freshwater Fishes of Northwestern Canada and Alaska).
Beamish and Crossman (1 971 . J. Fish. Res. Board Can. 34:371 -
78) concluded dwarf form C. commersonii utawana not valid
subspecies. Metcalf (1966. Univ. Kans. Publ. Mus. Nat. Hist.
17:23-189) suggested that three geographical forms from east-
ern, Plains, and Hudson Bay drainages existed in past.
Order Cypriniformes
Family Catostomidae
MD: Frederick Co., Glade Creek, 96 mm SL (NCSM).
72
Figure B-12
Ictalurus catus (Linnaeus)
White catfish
TYPE LOCALITY: "Northern part of America" (Linnaeus 1758.
Systema naturae Laurentii Salvii, Holmiae, 1 ed., 1 :1 -824).
SYSTEMATICS: No definitive study; no subspecies recognized.
Phylogenetic relationships to other ictalurids presented by
Taylor (1969. U.S. Natl. Mus. Bull. 282:1-315).
Order Siluriformes
Family Ictaluridae
CA: Lake Co., Clear Lake. 11 cm SL (Moyle 1 976).
Ictalurus melas (Rafinesque)
Black bullhead
TYPE LOCALITY: "Ohio River" (Rafinesque 1820. Q. J. Sci. Lit.
Arts 9:48-55).
SYSTEMATICS: Two subspecies sometimes recognized: /.
Melas catulusirom Gulf coast states and northern Mexico, and /.
m. melas horn farther north (Smith 1979. The Fishes of Illinois;
Scott and Crossman 1973. Freshwater Fishes of Canada). List of
synonyms provided by Scott and Crossman (1973). Phylo-
genetic relationships with other ictalurids presented by Taylor
(1 969. U.S. Natl. Mus. Bull. 282:1 -31 5), and Lundberg (1 975. Univ.
Mich. Mus. Zool. Pap. Paleo. 11).
Order Siluriformes
Family Ictaluridae
MD: Anne Arundel Co., Annapolis Reservoir, 99 mm SL(NCSM).
Ictalurus punctatus (Rafinesque)
Channel catfish
TYPE LOCALITY: "Ohio River" (Rafinesque 1818. Am. Mon.
Mag. Crit. Rev. 3:354-56).
SYSTEMATICS: Bailey et al. (1954. Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila.
106:109-64) discussed geographic and clinical variation but did
not recognize subspecies. Possibly name-worthy forms were
originally present, but situation has become greatly (perhaps
hopelessly) confused by extensive introductions within and
outside original range. Several closely related Mexican species,
but precise relationships yet to be delineated. Most closely
related United States species is /. lupus of TX and Mexico.
Phylogenetic relationship to other ictalurids presented by Taylor
(1969. U.S. Nat Mus. Bull. 282:1-315).
Order Siluriformes
Family Ictaluridae
MD: Cecil Co., Susquehanna River, 127 mm SL (NCSM).
_ 3
Figure B-12
Continued.
Noturus gyrinus (Mitchill)
Tadpole madtom
TYPE LOCALITY: Wallkill River, NY (Mitchill 181 7. Am. Monthly
Mag. Crit. Rev. 1:289-90).
SYSTEMATICS: Subgenus Schilbeodes. Appears to be most
closely related to N. lachneri (Taylor 1969. U.S. Natl. Mus. Bull.
282:1-315).
Order Siluriformes
Family Ictaluridae
MD: St. Mary's Co., St. Mary's River (NCSM)
Morone saxatilis (Walbaum)
Striped bass
TYPE LOCALITY: "New York" (Walbaum in Artedi 1 792. Genera
Piscium 3:4-723).
SYSTEMATICS: Appears in earlier literature as Roccus lineatus.
Whitehead and Wheeler (1 966. Ann. Mus. Civ. Stor. Nat. Genova
76:23-41) showed that Morone has priority over Roccus.
Order Perciformes
Family Percichthyidae
(N.C. Wildl. Resour. Comm. and NCSM)
Lepomis macrochirus Rafinesque
Bluegill
TYPE LOCALITY: "Ohio River" (Rafinesque 1819. J. Physique
88:417-29).
SYSTEMATICS: Three subspecies are recognized. Lepomis m.
macrochirus occurs in the Great Lakes and north Mississippi
basin, L.m. speciosus in TX and Mexico and L.m. purpurescens
on the Atlantic slope from coastal VA to FL (Hubbs and Lagler
1964. Fishes of the Great Lakes Region). Widespread intro-
ductions have resulted in extensive mixing of these gene pools.
Avise and Smith (1974. Evolution 28:42-56) studied geographic
variation and subspecific intergradation, and Avise and Smith
(1977. Syst. Zool. 26:319-35) studied relationships to other
centrarchid species using electrophoretic data. Commonly
hybridizes with several other species of Lepomis, particularly in
areas of ecological disturbance. Considered to be most closely
related to L. humilis (Branson and Moore 1962. Copeia:1 -108).
Order Perciformes
Family Centrarchidae
(N.C. Wildl. Resour. Comm. and NCSM)
74
Figure B-12
Micropterus salmoides (Lacepede)
Largemouth bass
TYPE LOCALITY: "les rivieras de le Carolina": Charleston, SC,
regarded as probable type locality (Lacepede 1802. Histoire
Naturelle des Poissons 4:1 -728).
SYSTEMATICS: Subfamily Lepominae, tribe Micropterini.
Formerly placed in monotypic genus Huro (Hubbs 1926. Misc.
Publ. Mus. Zool. Univ. Mich. 15:1-77; Hubbs and Bailey 1940.
Misc. Publ. Mus. Zool. Univ. Mich. 48:1-51). Hubbs and Bailey
(1940) reviewed systematics. and Bailey and Hubbs (1949.
Occas Pap. Mus. Zool. Univ. Mich. 516:1-40) defined and
mapped distinctive subspecies, M. s. flondanus, endemic to
peninsular FL.
Order Perciformes
Family Centrarchidae
(N.C. Wild). Resour. Comm. and NCSM)
Pomoxis annularis Rafinesque
White crappie
TYPE LOCALITY: "Ohio River" (Rafinesque 1818. Am. Mon.
Mag. Crit. Rev. 4:39-42).
SYSTEMATICS: Subfamily Centrarchinae, tribe Centrarchini.
Branson and Moore (1962. Copeia: 1 -108) studied morphology
of acoustico-lateralis system and determined closest generic
relationships to be with Centrarchus. Avise et al. (1 977. Copeia:
250-58), based on electrophoretic data, sugested relationships
might be closer to Lepomis and Micropterus. subfamily Lepo-
minae. Bailey (1938. Ph.D. diss., Univ. Michigan) reviewed
systematics. Known to hybridize naturally with P. nigroma-
culatus; artificially crossed with other genera (Schwartz 1972.
Publ. Gulf Coast Res. Lab. Mus. 3:1-328).
Order Perciformes
Family Centrarchidae
MD: Garrett Co.. Pmey Creek, 165 mm SL (NCSM).
Lepomis megalotis (Rafinesque)
Longear sunfish
TYPE LOCALITY: Kentucky, Licking, and Sandy rivers. KY
(Rafinesque 1820. Ichthyologia Ohiensis).
SYSTEMATICS: Closest relative L margmatus. these two
species comprising subgenus Icthelis. Hybridizes extensively
with other Lepomis. Most polytypic member of family Cen-
trarchidae, consisting of from four to six subspecies. Presently
under study by compiler.
Order Perciformes
Family Centrarchidae
(NMC)
_ 5
Figure B-12
Continued.
Lepomis microlophus (Giinther)
Redear sunfish
TYPE LOCALITY: St. Johns River, FL (Giinther 1 859. Catalogue
of the Fishes in the British Museum 1:1 -524).
SYSTEMATICS: Bailey (1938. Ph.D. diss., Univ. Michigan)
concluded that L. microlophus comprises two distinct sub-
species. Extensive introductions of stocks into ranges of each
other have obscured natural relationships. Avise and Smith
(1977. Syst. Zool. 26:319-35) on basis of electrophoretic data
determined that most closely related species of Lepomis likely
are L. megalotis and L. marginatus.
Order Perciformes
Family Centrarchidae
(N.C. Wildl. Resour. Comm. and NCSM)
Micropterus dolomieui Lacepede
Smallmouth bass
TYPE LOCALITY: None given (Lacepede 1802. Histoire
Naturelle des Poissons 4:1 -728).
SYSTEMATICS: Hubbs and Bailey (1940. Misc. Publ. Mus. Zool.
Univ. Mich. 48:1 -51 ) recognized two subspecies: M. d. dolomieui
east of Mississipi River and from central MO north; and M. d.
ve/oxfrom middle Arkansas River drainage. Intergrades identi-
fied from White and Black river drainages, AR and MO, and
Ouachita River system, AR. Widely introduced and genetic
integrity of original stocks may no longer be valid. Summary of
nonmenclature in Scott and Crossman (1 973. Freshwater Fishes
of Canada).
Order Perciformes
Family Centrarchidae
(N.C. Wildl. Resour. Comm. and NCSM)
Pomoxis nigromaculatus (Lesueur)
Black crappie
TYPE LOCALITY: Wabash River, OH (Lesueur in Cuvier and
Valenciennes 1829. Histoire Naturelle des Poissons 3:1 -500).
SYSTEMATICS: Subfamily Centrarchinae, tribe Centrarchini.
Branson and Moore (1962. Copeia:1 -108) studied morphology
of acoustico-lateralis system and determined closest generic
relationships to be with Centrarchus. Avise et al. (1977. Copeia:
250-58), based on electrophoretic data, suggested relationships
might be closer to Lepomis and Micropterus, subfamily Lepo-
minae. Bailey (1938. Ph.D. diss., Univ. Michigan) reviewed
systematics. Known to hybridize naturally with P. annularis;
artificially crossed with other genera (Schwartz 1972. Publ. Gulf
Coast Res. Lab. Mus. 3:1-328).
Order Perciformes
Family Centrarchidae
(N.C. Wildl. Resour. Comm. and NCSM)
76
Figure B-12
Cottus bairdi Girard
Mottled sculpin
TYPE LOCALITY: Mahoning River, OH (Girard 1850. Proc. Am.
Assoc. Adv. Sci. [1849]:409-11).
SYSTEMATICS: Bailey and Bond (1 963. Occas. Pap. Mus. Zool.
634:1-27) presented summary of species included in C. bairdi
group. Considerable geographic variation throughout wide
range of species, and overall systematic picture unresolved.
Some populations classified as C. bairdimay be distinct species.
Scott and Crossman (1973. Freshwater Fishes of Canada) noted
that Canadian populations have received insufficient attention
for subspecific recognition. Robins (1954. Ph.D. diss., Cornell
Univ.) studied systematics in eastern United States. McAllister
(1964. J. Fish. Res. Board Can. 21:1339-42) discussed
separation of C. bairdi horn C. cognatus.
Order Perciformes
Family Cottidae
(NCSM)
Detection of Escherichia coli in water samples. The presence
of E. coli is detected by the following procedure:
A water sample is collected in a sterile bottle and poured into
a filtering apparatus. When water is drawn through a sterile
filter, the bacterial contaminants are left behind on a piece of
filter paper. This filter paper is placed in a sterile Petri plate
containing a nutrient broth, which the bacteria will use to
grow. The plate is incubated at 35 degrees C for 24 hours.
Portable incubators are available that run off a car's cigarette
lighter and can be used until a source of electricity is availa-
ble. By the end of this 24-hour period, individual E. coli or-
ganisms have divided to produce metallic-green colonies
visible to the naked eye. The log. or geometric mean of 200
fecal coliform colonies per five 100 ml samples collected
over 30 days, is the allowable limit for fresh waters used for
sw imming. See Standard Methods for the Examination of
Water and Wastewater (1985) for details (ref. B-5).
APPENDIX C
Glossary
Acute toxicity. A relatively short-term lethal or other adverse
effect to a test organism caused by pollutants, and usually de-
fined as occurring within 4 days for fish and large inver-
tebrates, and shorter times for smaller organisms.
Alluvial soil. A deposit of sand, mud, etc., formed by flowing
water.
Animal waste. Either solid or liquid products, resulting from
digestive or excretory processes, and eliminated from an
animal's body.
Aquifer. Any geological formation containing water, especially
one that supplies water for wells, springs, etc.
Bedrock. Unbroken solid rock, overlain in most places by soil
or rock fragments.
Best management practice. An engineered structure or manage-
ment activity, or combination of these, that eliminates or
reduces an adverse environmental effect of a pollutant.
Bioaccumulation. The process of a chemical accumulating in a
biological food chain by being passed from one organism to
another as the contaminated organism is preyed upon by
another organism.
Biochemical oxygen demand (BOD). An empirical test in
which standardized laboratory procedures measure the oxygen
required for the biochemical degradation of organic material,
and the oxygen used to oxidize inorganic materials, such as
sulfides and ferrous iron.
Biomass. The total weight of all living organisms or of a desig-
nated group of organisms in a given area.
Birth defect. A deformity of an organism at birth that results
from a biologic infection, genetic anomaly, or presence of a
pollutant during the gestation period.
Chronic toxicity. A relatively long-term adverse effect to a test
organism caused by or related to appetite changes, growth,
metabolism, reproduction, a pollutant, genetic mutation, etc.
Cobble streambed. A watercourse predominately lined with
naturally rounded stones, rounded by the water's action. Size
varies from a hen's egg to that used as paving stones.
Conservation practice. An engineered structure or management
activity that eliminates or reduces an adverse environmental
effect of a pollutant and conserves soil, water, plant, or
animal resources.
Confined aquifer. An aquifer bounded above and below by im-
permeable beds of rock or soil strata or by beds of distinctly
lower permeability than that of the aquifer itself.
Cultural eutrophication. The process whereby human activities
increase the amounts of nutrients entering surface waters,
giving increased algal and other aquatic plant population
growths, resulting in accelerated eutrophication of the water-
course or water body.
Delta. A nearly flat, often triangular, plain of deposited sand,
mud, etc., between diverging branches of a river mouth.
Dissolved oxygen (DO). The amount of oxygen dissolved in
water. Generally, proportionately higher amounts of oxygen
can be dissolved in colder waters than in warmer waters.
Emergent rooted plant. An aquatic plant whose roots are in the
watercourse or water body's bottom and whose upper part
emerges from or lies on top of the water.
Ephemeral stream. A watercourse that flows briefly only in
direct response to precipitation in the immediate locality, and
whose channel is at all times above the water table.
Escherichia coli (E. coli). A bacterium of the intestines of
warm-blooded organisms, including humans, that is used as
an indicator of water pollution for disease-producing or-
ganisms.
Eutrophication. A natural process whereby a watercourse or
water body receives nutrients and becomes more biologically
productive, possibly leading to a water body clogged with
aquatic vegetation.
Feathering. The process whereby dissolved salts move upward
through a wooden post or stake and become deposited on the
structure's outer surface, yielding a white, fluffy, "feathery"
appearance.
Fertilizer. Any substance used to make soil or water more
productive. Fertilizers may be commercially produced or be
the result of animal or plant activities.
Food chain. The transfer of food energy from plants through a
series of organisms by repeated eating and being eaten.
Food web. An interlocking pattern of several to many food
chains.
Herbaceous vegetation. Plants having a stem that remains soft
and succulent during the growing season, not woody.
Herbicide. A type of pesticide, either a substance or biological
agent, used to kill plants, especially weeds.
Insecticide. A type of pesticide, either a substance or biological
agent, used to kill insects or insect-like organisms.
Intermittent stream. A watercourse that flows only at certain
times of the year, receiving water from springs or surface
sources; also, a watercourse that does not flow continuously,
when water losses from evaporation or seepage exceed avail-
able stream flow.
Invertebrate. An organism without a backbone.
Karst topography. An area of limestone formations character-
ized by sinks, ravines, and underground streams. Areas with
less than 20 feet of soil over fractured limestone. No shale
layers present, capping the top aquifer, but shale layers can
separate the top aquifer from deeper ones.
Lake. A body of fresh or salt water of considerable size, whose
open-water and deep-bottom zones (no light penetration to
bottom) are large compared to the shallow-water (shoreline)
zone, which has light penetration to its bottom.
Lentic water. Water that is standing, not flowing, such as that
in a lake, pond, swamp, or bog.
78
Lotic water. Water that is flowing or running, such as that in a
spring, stream, or river.
Macrophyte. Any large plant that can be seen without the aid of
a microscope or magnifying device. Examples of aquatic
macrophytes are cattail, bulrush, arrowhead, waterlily. etc.
Mancos shale. A geologic formation, remnant of an ancient sea.
which exists in many parts of the western United States.
When irrigation waters flow through the formation, salts be-
come dissolved in the water, increasing its salinity.
Mesotrophic water body. A water body classified midway be-
tween oligotrophic and eutrophic; characterized by moderate
amounts of nutrients entering the water body, a moderate
number of shoreline aquatic plants, and occasional plankton
blooms.
Methemoglobinemia. The presence of methemoglobin in the
blood, making the blood useless as a carrier of oxygen.
Methemoglobin. a compound closely related to oxy-
hemoglobin, is found in the blood following poisoning by
certain substances, such as nitrate. Young babies, both hu-
man and animal, are particularly susceptible to
methemoglobinemia, leading to a condition known as "blue
baby.'" which if untreated can cause death.
Mudcap. A thick deposit of mud or fine sediment lying over
permeable materials.
Mud plastering. Mud deposited by force of water against the
sides of a watercourse, sealing them.
Nonpathogenic organism. An organism that does not produce
disease.
Nonpoint source pollution. 'Diffuse"" pollution, generated
from large areas with no particular point of pollutant origin,
but rather from many individual places. Urban and agricul-
tural areas generate nonpoint source pollutants.
Nontarget organisms. Plants or animals that inadvertently are
sprayed by pesticide when "target" vegetation or animals are
missed by the spraying operation.
Nutrient. Any substance, such as fertilizer phosphorous and
nitrogen compounds, which enhances the growth of plants
and animals.
Oligotrophic water body. A water body characterized by few
nutrients entering the water body, few to no shoreline aquatic
plants, and rarely any plankton blooms.
Overland flow. Water flow over the land, often in "sheet"
flow or in small rivulets before emptying into a defined
watercourse.
Pathogenic organism. An organism that produces disease.
Periphyton. Small-to-microscopic aquatic plants, which grow on
stones, submerged twigs, and other plants. Their appearance
may be that of a coating on these objects.
Perennial stream. Watercourse that flows continuously through-
out the year and whose upper surface generally stands lower
than the water table in the area adjacent to the watercourse.
Pesticide. Any chemical or biological agent that kills plant or
animal pests. Herbicides, insecticides, nematocides, miticides,
algicides, etc., are all pesticides.
Photosynthesis. The process by which plants manufacture their
own food (simple carbohydrates) from carbon dioxide (COt)
and water. The plant's chlorophyll-containing cells use light
as an energy source and release oxygen as a byproduct.
Phytoplankton. Small-to-microscopic, aquatic, floating plants.
Piping. Under low dissolved oxygen conditions, the act of fish
coming to surface of the water and capturing a bubble of air
in their mouth.
Plankton. Small-to-microscopic, floating or feebly swimming,
aquatic plants and animals.
Point source pollution. Pollutants originating from a "point"
source, such as a pipe, vent, or culvert.
Pond. A body of fresh or salt water, smaller than a lake, and
where the shallow-water zone (light penetration to its bottom)
is relatively large compared to the open water and deep bot-
tom (no light penetration to the bottom).
Pool. In a watercourse, an area often following a rapids (riffle),
which is relatively deep with slowly moving water compared
to the rapids.
Protected bedrock. Areas w ith 50 feet or more of fine-to-
medium textured soils and a shale layer capping the topmost
bedrock aquifer.
Receiving waters. Waters of a watercourse or water body that
receive waters from overland flow or other watercourses.
Resource Management System (RMS). A combination of con-
servation practices and management identified by the primary
use of land or water. Under an RMS. the resource base is
protected by meeting acceptable soil losses, maintaining
acceptable water quality, and maintaining acceptable
ecological and management levels for the selected resource use.
Riffle. In a watercourse, an area often upstream of a pool,
which is relatively shallow with swiftly moving water com-
pared to the pool.
Riparian zone. An area, adjacent to and along a watercourse,
which is often vegetated and constitutes a buffer zone be-
tween the nearby lands and the watercourse.
Runoff. Water that runs off the land in sheet flow , in rivulets,
or in defined watercourses.
Runoff curve number. An index number, used to approximate
the amount of runoff resulting from a given rainfall event.
Saline seep. Water, carrying salts, rising to the surface usually
in a localized area, after traveling subterraneously from
another location. Saline seep salts can reduce productivity or
kill plants, leaving a barren place in the field or landscape.
Scoliosis. A vertebral deformity, such as "broken back" syn-
drome in fish, resulting from a biologic infection, genetic
anomaly, or the presence of a pollutant.
_ 9
Shallow bedrock. Areas having 20 to 50 feet of soil capping the
topmost bedrock aquifer. No shale layer present, capping the
topmost aquifer, but shale layers may separate top aquifers
from deeper ones.
Sinkhole. A circular depression, commonly funnel-shaped, in a
Karst area. Drainage is subterranean; size is measured in
meters or tens of meters.
Submergent rooted plant. An aquatic plant whose roots are in
the watercourse or water body's bottom with the upper part
of the plant submerged below the surface of the water. Pond
weeds (Potamogeton) and muskgrass (Chara) are examples.
Teratology. The science or study of monstrosities or abnormal
formations in animals or plants.
Turbidity. The presence of sediment in water, making it un-
clear, murky, or opaque.
Water body. An enlargement of a watercourse or a geologic ba-
sin filled with water, such as a lake or a pond.
Watercourse. A linear depression containing flowing water,
such as a stream, creek, run, river, canal, ditch, etc.
Woody vegetation. Plants having a stem or trunk that is fibrous
and rigid.
Zooplankton. Small-to-microscopic, aquatic, floating animals.
80
APPENDIX D
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1-8. National Stream Quality Accounting Network (NASQAN).
U.S. Geological Survey, Water Resources Div.. Reston.
VA.
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81
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6- 9. R.J. Hall and D. Swineford. "Toxic Effects of Endrin
and Toxaphene on the Southern Leopard Frog, Rana
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6-10. D.R. Bottrell. Integrated Pest Management. Council on
Environmental Quality, Washington, D.C., 1979.
7- 1. "Background Paper— Pollutants Causing Water Use Im-
pairments: Animal Wastes." Water Quality Training
Facilitator's Guide. U.S. Dept. of Agriculture, Soil Con-
servation Service, unpublished document, 1984.
7-2. Agricultural Waste Management Field Manual. U.S. Dept.
of Agriculture, Soil Conservation Service, Engineering
Div., Washington, D.C. 1975.
7-3. J. A. Moore, M.E. Grismer, S.R. Crane, and J.R. Miller.
Evaluating Dairy Waste Management Systems ' Influence
on Fecal Coliform Concentration in Runoff. Agricultural
Experiment Station Bulletin No. 658, Oregon State
University, Corvallis, OR, 1982.
7-4. E. Moore, E. Janes, F. Kinsinger, K. Pitney, and J.
Sainsbury. Livestock Grazing Management and Water
Quality Protection. U.S. Environmental Protection Agen-
cy, Seattle, W A, 1979.
7-5. B.J. Nebel. Environmental Science: The Way the World
Works. Prentice-Hall, Inc., Englewood Cliffs, NJ, 1981.
7-6. "Background Paper — Pollutants That Cause Water Use
Impairments: Nutrients and Sediment." Water Quality
Training Facilitator's Guide. U.S. Dept. of Agriculture,
Soil Conservation Service, unpublished document, 1984.
7-7. State-of-the-Art Review of Best Management Practices for
Agricultural Nonpoint Source Control: Vol. I. Animal
Waste. North Carolina Agricultural Extension Service,
Raleigh, NC, 1982.
7- 8. J. A. Krivak. "Best Management Practices to Control
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& Water Conserv., 33:161-166, 1978.
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Manual for Irrigated Agriculture. U.S. Environmental
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1978.
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8-3.
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Quality Monitoring Manual. Federal Highway Administra-
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DP-43-2), Arlington, VA, 1979.
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(EPA-600/2-78-162), Ada, OK, 1978.
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West." Using Our Natural Resources, Yearbook of
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D.C, 1983.
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and Methods." Soil, Yearbook of Agriculture, U.S. Dept.
of Agriculture, Washington, D.C, 1957.
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Data." Sewage and Industrial Wastes, 27(10), 1955.
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Manual on the Identification, Significance, and Control of
Algae in Water Supplies. U.S. Dept. of Health, Education
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B-2. P.M. Brady. Pond Management for Sport Fishing in Ar-
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B-4. D.S. Lee, C.R. Gilbert, C.H. Hocutt, R.E. Jenkins, D.E.
McAllister, and J.R. Stauffer, Jr. Atlas of North American
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& Water Conserv., 40(l):48-52, 1985.
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B-6. A.B. Bottcher and L.B. Baldwin. "BMP Selector: Gener-
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82
A Word of Thanks
Any effort to implement an idea involves a sound concept, a
need to be filled, the dedication of many people, a little luck,
and hard work. All these elements came together to complete
the Water Quality Indicators Guide: Surface Waters. If any one
of the above had been lacking, the guide would never have been
finished. Each of the following people contributed in his or her
own way. Four individuals deserve special thanks:
Dr. Patricia Bytnar Perfetti. Head of the Geoscience and
Environmental Studies Department, and the Physics and As-
tronomy Department of the University of Tennessee at Chat-
tanooga, researched and wrote much of the manuscript. Her
assistance on the guide made it a reality. Selene Robinson of
Trandes. Inc.. not only typed the manuscript, but translated the
field sheet format concept into a real, workable tool. Richard
Francoeur. at the time in 1983 a graduating senior from Cornell
University, made the first "'cut'" at a water quality indicator
guide by doing initial research and developing the environmental
cause effect relationships that are present in the guide. Finally,
my wife. Sandra, maintained her patience and good humor
through many hours and days of proofreading.
Susan Alexander. EPA. Dallas
Malvern Allen. NTC*, PA
Mike Anderson, NE
Joseph Arruda. KS Dept. Health & Envrmt.
Donald Bivens, TN
Valerian Bohanty, NE
James Boykin, Ofc. Gov't & Pub. Aff.. USDA
Bill Brown. CO
Gary Bullard. CA
John Burt. NTC. TX
Gerald Calhoun. MD
Sam Chapman. TX
Douglas Christensen. NHQ
Toby Clark. The Conservation Foundation. DC
Ellen Dietrich. PA
Thurston Dorsett, TN
Robert Drees, KS
Steven Dressing. EPA. NHQ
Paul DuMont. NHQ
Thomas Dumper, NTC, NE
Dennis Erinakes. NTC. TX
Robert Francis. NTC. PA
Robert Franzen. NTC. PA
Larry Goff, TN
Pat Graham, MO
Gary Gwinn, WV
Timothy Hall. FWS** MD
Thomas Hamer. NE
Howard Hankin. TN
James Hannaham. DC Water Resources Resrch. Ctr.
Leaman Harris. EPA. Dallas
John Hassell. OK Conservation Commission
Steven Henningen. KS
Robert Higgins. KS
Patricia Hood-Greenberg. NHQ
Robert Hummel. KS
Thomas Iivari. NTC. PA
Barry Isaacs. PA
David Jones. MT
James Kaap. WI
Arnold King. NTC. TX
Susan King. EPA, Dallas
Judith Ladd. NHQ
Mary Landin. CE***. MS
Sarah Laurent. NHQ
Ronald Lauster. NM
Jerry Lee. TN
James Lewis. NHQ
Jeff Lozer. MD
Gary Margheim. NHQ
David McCalley, Univ. of No. Iowa
James Meek. EPA. NHQ
Daniel Merkel. NHQ
Milton Meyer. NHQ
Kent Milton. LA
David Moffitt. NTC. OR
Gerald Montgomery . TN
John Moore, NTC. PA
Robert Moorehouse, MA
Eldie Mustard. CO
Joel Myers. PA
James Newman. NHQ
Victor Payne. AL
Frank Resides, NTC. PA
Walter Rittall. NHQ
Larry Robinson. SC
Marc Safley. NHQ
Donald Schuster. MN
Jane Sisk. Calloway Co. Pub. Schools. KY
Daniel Smith. NHQ
Donald Snethen. KS Dept. Health & Envmt.
Frank Sprague, NTC, TX
Lyle Steffan. CA
James Stiebing. EPA. Dallas
Billy Teels, NHQ
Mark Waggoner. MN
Clive Wafker. NHQ
Gerald Welsh. NHQ
Robert Wengrzynek, ME
Charles R. Terrell
National Water Quality Specialist
Soil Conservation Service. Washington. D.C.
* SCS National Technical Center
** U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service
*** U.S. Army Corps of Engineers
Appendix E
Conservation and Best Management Practices
List of conservation and best management practices (BMP's)
that can be employed to reduce or eliminate nonpoint source
water pollution problems.
1 . Access Road— A road located and constructed to provide
needed access, but built with soil conservation measures to
prevent soil erosion caused by vehicular traffic or animal
travel.
2. Alternative Pesticides — Pesticides other than chemical types
traditionally used on a crop.
3. Bedding— Plowing, blading, or otherwise elevating the sur-
face of flat land into a series of broad, low ridges separated
by shallow, parallel channels.
4. Biological Control Methods— Use of organisms or biological
materials to control crop pests. Integrated Pest Management
(IPM) is an example of biological control that can reduce the
amounts of chemical pesticides needed to grow a crop.
5. Brush Management — Management and manipulation of
brush to improve or restore plant cover quality in reducing
soil erosion.
6. Chiseling and Subsoiling— Loosening the soil to shatter com-
pacted and restrictive layers to improve water quality, in-
filtration and root penetration, and reduce surface water runoff.
7. Conservation Cropping— Growing crops in combination with
needed cultural and management measures to improve the
soil and protect it during erosion periods. Practices include
cover cropping and crop rotation, and providing vegetative
cover between crop seasons.
8. Conservation Cropping Sequence— A sequence of crops
designed to provide adequate organic residue to maintain and
improve soil tilth.
9. Conservation Tillage— In producing a crop, limiting the
number of cultural operations to reduce soil erosion, soil
compaction, and energy use. Usually involves an increase in
the use of herbicides.
10. Contour Farming— Farming sloped land on the contour to
reduce erosion, control water flow, and increase infiltration.
1 1 . Contour Orchard and Other Fruit Areas— Planting or-
chards, vineyards, or small fruits, so all cultural operations
are done on the contour.
12. Correct Fertilizer Container Disposal— Following accepted
methods for fertilizer container disposal, keeping containers
out of sinkholes, creeks, and other places adjacent to water
to reduce the amount of fertilizer that reaches waterways.
13. Correct Pesticide Container Disposal— Following accepted
methods for pesticide container disposal, keeping containers
out of sinkholes, creeks, and other places adjacent to water
to reduce the amount of pesticide that reaches waterways.
14. Cover and Green Manure Crops — Use of close-growing
grasses, legumes, or small grain for seasonal soil protection
and improvement.
15. Critical Area Planting— Planting vegetation to stabilize the
soil and reduce erosion and runoff.
16. Crop Residue Use— Leaving plant residues after harvest to
protect cultivated fields during critical erosion periods when
the ground would otherwise be bare.
17. Crop Rotation— Planting different crops in successive sea-
sons in the same field. Procedure can reduce pesticide loss
significantly. There are some indirect costs if less profitable
crops are alternated.
18. Debris Basin— A barrier or berm constructed across a water-
course or at other suitable locations to act as a silt or sedi-
ment catchment basin.
19. Deferred Grazing— Postponing grazing for a prescribed peri-
od to improve vegetative conditions and reduce soil loss.
20. Diversion— Channels constructed across a slope to divert
runoff water and help control soil erosion, and having a
mound or ridge along the lower side of the slope.
2 1 . Drainage Land Grading— Reshaping the surface of land to
improve surface drainage and /or water distribution.
22. Emergency Tillage— Roughening soil surfaces by methods,
such as listing, ridging, duck-footing, or chiseling. Procedure
is done as a temporary protection measure.
23. Farmstead and Feedlot Windbreak— A strip or belt of trees
or shrubs, established next to a farmstead or feedlot to
reduce wind speed and protect soil resources.
24. Fencing— Enclosing an environmentally sensitive area of land
or water with fencing to control access of animals or people.
25. Field Border — A border or strip of permanent vegetation, es-
tablished at field edges to control soil erosion and slow,
reduce, or eliminate pollutants from entering an adjacent
watercourse or water body.
26. Field Windbreak— A strip or belt of trees or shrubs, estab-
lished in or adjacent to a field, to reduce wind speed and
protect soil resources.
27. Filter Strip— A strip or section of land in permanent vegeta-
tion, established downslope of agricultural operations to con-
trol erosion and slow, reduce, or eliminate pollutants from
entering an adjacent watercourse.
28. Fishpond Management— Developing or improving impound-
ed water to produce fish for consumption or recreation.
29. Grade Stabilization Structure— A structure to stabilize a
streambed or to control erosion in natural or constructed
channels.
30. Grasses and Legumes in Rotation— A conservation cropping
system that establishes and maintains grasses and/or legumes
for a definite number of years.
31. Grazing Land Mechanical Treatment— Renovating, con-
touring, furrowing, pitting, or chiseling native grazing land
by mechanical means to improve plant cover and water avail-
ability.
32. Heavy-Use Area Protection— Establishing vegetative cover
or installing structures to stabilize heavily used areas.
84
33. Hillside Ditch— A channel constructed to control the water
flow and erosion by diverting runoff to a protected outlet.
34. Integrated Pest Management Program— Use of organisms
or biological materials for effective pest control with reduc-
tion in amounts of pesticides used. "Scouting" of insect pest
populations is necessary to determine when pest management
actions are necessary to reduce pests.
35. Irrigation Field Ditch— A permanently lined irrigation ditch
that conveys water from a supply source to fields, preventing
erosion, infiltration, or degradation of water qual it\ .
36. Irrigation Water Conveyance— A pipeline or lined waterway
constructed to prevent erosion and loss of water.
37. Irrigation Water Management— Determining and controlling
the rate, amount, and timing of irrigation water applied to
crops to minimize soil erosion, runoff, and fertilizer and pes-
ticide movement.
38. Land Absorption Areas and Use of Natural or Construct-
ed Wetland Systems— Providing adequate land absorption or
wetland areas downstream from agricultural areas so that soil
and plants receive and treat agricultural nonpoint source pol-
lutants.
39. Listing— Plowing and planting done in the same operation.
Plowed soil is pushed into ridges between rows, and seeds
are planted in the furrows between the ridges.
40. Livestock Exclusion— Excluding livestock from environmen-
tally sensitive areas to protect areas from induced damages.
Also, excluding livestock from areas not intended for
grazing.
41. Precision Application Rates— Within a particular field, ap-
plying precise amounts of fertilizer and pesticide according to
the soil plant needs in specific parts of the field. Generally,
lower rates can be applied, especially where tests show
residues are present from previous applications.
42. Managing Aerial Pesticide Applications— Having pesticides
applied when winds are low and when they are in a direction
away from watercourses and riparian areas. This can reduce
contamination in these nontarget areas.
43. Mechanical Weed Control Methods— Using mechanical or
biological, instead of chemical, weed control can reduce sub-
stantially the need for chemicals. Costs will have to be care-
fully computed to make the operation economically feasible.
44. Minimizing Number of Irrigations— Carefully monitoring
crop water needs and soil water availability minimizes the
number of irrigations necessary 7 to produce a crop. This may
yield higher profits at harvest and reduce water pollution and
soil erosion.
45. Mulching— Applying plant residues or other suitable materi-
als to the soil surface reduces evaporation, water runoff, and
soil erosion. Plastic sheeting can increase runoff, but will
reduce nutrient leaching.
46. No-till or Zero-tillage— Tilling the soil with minimal distur-
bance and utilizing a fluted colter or double-disk opener
ahead of the planter shoe to cut through untilled residues of
the previous crop.
47 Optimizing Crop Planting Time— Planting a crop at a time
other than when the crop's specific pest enemies would be
present can reduce the need for pesticides and lower costs.
48. Optimizing Date of Application— Changing a pesticide ap-
plication date to avoid impending rain or winds can improve
effectiveness of the pesticide application and avoid environ-
mental problems. Application can only be done when pest
control effectiveness is not adversely affected. Process in-
volves little or no cost.
49. Optimizing Pesticide Formulations— Pesticides come in
several formulations with different half-lives. If a formulation
with a shorter half-life than one normally used by the farmer
is chosen, the pesticide will be less available to cause en-
vironmental damage. Also, some formulations require fewer
applications for the same pest protection, so costs are
reduced and less is available to the environment.
50. Optimizing Pesticide Placement— Direct application of a
pesticide on the field and plants rather than aerial spraying is
more effective, reduces costs, and protects nearby environ-
ments from accidental spraying.
5 1 . Optimizing Time of Day For Application— Applying pesti-
cide at times of low winds, often early and late in the day.
can reduce amounts needed for the crop, reduce costs, and
reduce pesticide that could adversely affect adjacent en-
vironments.
52. Pasture and Hayland Management— Proper treatment, in-
cluding fertilizing, aerating, and harvesting can protect soil
and reduce water loss.
53. Phreatophyte Water Losses— Elimination of nonbeneficial
uses of water by phreatophytes (plants getting water from
deep roots) not only lessens the concentration of salts through
transpiration, but conserves water as well. Lowering the
water table and developing mechanical and chemical tech-
niques for elimination of phreatophytes ensures more efficient
water use and minimizes salt hazards.
54. Planned Grazing Systems— A system in which two or more
grazing units are alternately grazed and rested from grazing in
a planned sequence to improve forage production, maintain
vegetative cover, retain animal wastes on the land, and protect
animals from polluted waters.
55. Plant Between Rows in Minimum Tillage— Applicable only
to row crops in non-plow-based tillage: may reduce amounts
of pesticides necessary.
56. Plow-Plant— Crop is planted directly into plowed ground
with secondary tillage. This system increases infiltration and
water storage.
57. Pond — A water impoundment made by constructing a dam or
embankment or by excavating a pit or "dugout."
58. Pond Sealing or Lining— Installing a fixed lining of impervi-
ous material or treating the soil in a pond to reduce or pre-
vent excessive water loss.
59. Precision Land Forming— Reshaping the surface of land to
planned grades to give effective and efficient water
movement.
85
60. Proper Fertilizer Applications — Selecting the proper time
and method of fertilizer application to reduce losses through
leaching and soil erosion, and ensure adequate crop nutrition.
61. Proper Grazing Use— Having no more animal units than will
allow grazing areas to maintain sufficiently healthy, productive
vegetative cover to protect the soil from eroding and protect
the water quality of adjacent watercourses.
62. Proper Timing of Irrigation Sprinklers— Using irrigation
equipment when plants need moisture, and controlling the
amount of moisture delivered to the plants by avoiding over-
irrigating to conserve water, protect soil from eroding, and
protect the water quality of adjacent watercourses.
63. Pumped Well Drain— A well sunk into an aquifer to pump
water to lower the prevailing water table.
64. Pumping Plant for Water Control— A pumping facility in-
stalled to transfer water for a conservation need.
65. Range Seeding— Establishing adapted plants on rangeland to
reduce soil and water loss and produce more forage.
66. Reducing Excessive Insecticide Treatment— Applying exact-
ly the correct amounts of insecticide recommended by the
manufacturer for the crop and soil types. Refined predictive
techniques required, such as computer forecasting.
67. Reduction of Weed Growth— Reducing number of weed
plants to reduce water loss from evapotranspiration.
68. Reduction or Elimination of Irrigation of Marginal
Lands— Taking irrigated marginally productive lands out of
production to reduce water losses and salt pollution.
69. Regulated Runoff Impoundment— Retention or detention of
water with infiltration prior to discharge to reduce runoff
quantity, retain nutrients and pesticides, and prevent pollu-
tants from reaching watercourses.
70. Regulating Water in Drainage Systems— The use of water-
control structures to control the removal of surface runoff
waters or subsurface flows.
71. Reservoir Evaporation— Controlling, through design or prac-
tices, the evaporation rate of water from reservoirs. If not
controlled, evaporation tends to increase the salt content of
the reservoir waters.
72. Resistant Crop Varieties— Use of plant varieties that are
resistant to insects, nematodes, diseases, salt, etc.
73. Return Flow Regulation— Regulating the type and quantity
of water return flows as a means of maintaining and improv-
ing irrigation water quality.
74. Ridge Tillage— Tillage producing a row configuration similar
to listing, but planting is done on the ridges year after year
with no seedbed preparation preceding planting.
75. Rock Barrier — A rock retaining wall, constructed across the
slope, forming and supporting a bench terrace to control the
flow of water on sloping land.
76. Roof Runoff Management— A facility for collecting, con-
trolling, and disposing of rainfall/snowmelt runoff water from
roofs. It keeps animal holding areas free of excess water and
helps to maintain water quality of adjacent watercourses.
77. Row Arrangement— Establishing crop rows on planned
grades and lengths to provide drainage and erosion control.
78. Runoff Management System— A system for controlling ex-
cess runoff from a development site during and after con-
struction operations.
79. Sediment Basin— A basin constructed to collect and store
sediment from runoff waters associated with nonpoint source
pollutants.
80. Slow Release Fertilizer— Applying fertilizers that release
nitrogen slowly to soil and plants, to minimize rapid nitrogen
losses from soils prone to leaching.
81. Soil Testing and Plant Analysis— Testing soils and determin-
ing plant fertilizer requirements to avoid overfertilization and
subsequent nutrient losses to runoff water.
82. Split Applications of Nitrogen— "Splitting" or dividing a
set amount of fertilizer into two or more applications in the
same season for the same crop.
83. Spring Development — Improving springs and water seeps by
excavating, cleaning, capping, or providing collection and
storage facilities for the water.
84. Spring Nitrogen Fertilizer Application— Applying nitrogen
fertilizer in the spring, instead of autumn, to avoid fertilizer
losses from heavy late winter and early spring runoff events.
85. Streambank Protection— By vegetative or structural means,
stabilizing and protecting banks of watercourses, lakes, estu-
aries, or excavated channels against scour and erosion.
86. Strip Tillage— A narrow strip, tilled with a rototiller gang or
other implement. Seed is planted in the same operation.
87. Stripcropping— Growing crops in a systematic arrangement
of strips or bands to reduce water and wind erosion.
88. Stripcropping, Contour— Growing crops on the contour to
reduce erosion and control water.
89. Stripcropping, Field— Planting large sections or entire fields
in a systematic arrangement to help control erosion and
runoff on sloping cropland where contour stripcropping is not
a practical method.
90. Structure for Water Control— A structure to control the water
stage, discharge, distribution, delivery, or direction of water
flow in open channels or water use areas.
91 . Subsurface Drain — A conduit, such as tile or plastic pipe,
installed beneath the ground surface to control water levels for
increased production. Net runoff and leaching are reduced,
but nitrate concentrations may be increased.
92. Surface Drainage— A conduit, such as tile, pipe, or tubing,
installed beneath the ground surface to collect and/or convey
drainage water.
86
93. Surface Roughening— Roughening the soil surface by ridge
or clod-forming tillage.
94. Sweep Tillage — Using a "sweep'" on small-grain stubble to
kill early fall weeds. The practice shatters and lifts the soil,
thus enhancing infiltration while leaving residue in place.
95. Terrace— An earth embankment, channel, or a combination
ridge and channel constructed across a slope to control
runoff.
96. Timing and Placement of Fertilizers— Delaying timing or
using proper placement of fertilizers for maximum utilization
by plants and minimum fertilizer leaching or movement by
surface runoff.
97. Tree Planting— To establish or reinforce a stand of trees to
conserve soil and moisture and help protect water leaving
agricultural areas by "■filtering"" pollutants from the water
flow.
98. Trickle Irrigation — Using trickle irrigation equipment to
deliver small quantities of water to irrigate crops.
99. Trough or Tank— Locating watering facilities a reasonable
distance from watercourses and dispersing the facilities to en-
courage uniform grazing and to reduce livestock concentra-
tions, particularly near watercourses.
100. Underground Outlet— A water outlet, placed underground to
dispose of excess water without causing damage by erosion
or flooding.
101. Uniformity of Irrigation Water Quality— Uniform irrigation
water quality can be achieved through water flow regulation
by controlling the release of water from storage reservoirs.
102. Waste Management System— A planned system to manage
animal wastes in a manner that does not degrade air. soil, or
water resources. Often wastes are collected in storage or
treatment impoundments, such as ponds, lagoons, or stacking
facilities.
1 03 . Waste Storage Pond— An impoundment for temporary-
storage of animal or other agricultural waste.
104. Waste Storage Structure— A fabricated structure for the
temporary storage of animal wastes or other organic agricul-
tural wastes.
105. Waste Treatment Lagoon— An impoundment for biological
treatment of animal or other agricultural waste.
106. Waste Utilization— Using wastes for fertilizer or other pur-
poses in a manner which improves the soil and protects water
resources. May also include recycling of waste solids for
animal feed supplement.
107. Water and Sediment Control Basin— An earth embankment
or a combination ridge and channel to form a sediment trap
and a water detention basin to prevent soil erosion losses and
improve water quality.
108. Water Supply Dispersal— A well which is constructed or
improved to provide water for irrigation and livestock and
which enhances natural livestock distribution or improved
vegetative cover.
109. Water Spreading— Diverting or collecting runoff and spread-
ing it over relatively flat areas.
87
APPENDIX F
Soil Conservation Service
Water Quality Indicators Guide: Surface Waters
Field Sheets
Note: Copy the assessment and field sheets before proceed-
ing! Write on the copies.
Part 1: Background information for the watershed assess-
ment needs to be completed only once for each watershed. The
assessment gives general information about the watershed and
may serve for several watercourses or water bodies within the
watershed. The on-farm (ranch) water assessment will have to
be completed for each farm or ranch evaluated.
Part 2: Field sheet selection of nonpoint source pollutants
will have to be completed for each watercourse or water body
evaluated. This preliminary decision about pollutants will deter-
mine which field sheets will need to be completed (sediment,
animal wastes, nutrients, pesticides, or salts).
88
Part 1: Background Information
Watershed .Assessment
Evaluator's Name
Location
Date.
State County
Watershed (basin)
.Township Range
Subwatershed _
(if applicable)
Watercourses/Water Bodies
1 . Size of watershed
2. Number of major watercourses.
3. Watercourse names.
4. Types of watercourses.
ephemeral'
5. Average watercourse gradient (feet per mile)
6. Watercourse bottom (predominant type):
CH bedrock L_l boulder I 1 cobble
7. Frequency of flooding:
8. Watercourse channel alteration:
□
□
dredged
intermittent" or
□
□
perennial*
eravel
rare
I 1 sand I 1 silt-clay
I 1 occasional
□
channelized
□
□
organic
frequent
other (alteration date if known)
9. Watercourse primary uses:
( 1 ) I 1 Domestic drinking water supply
(2) I 1 Industrial water supply
□ Agricultural water supply: I 1 Irrigation I 1 Livestock I 1 Other (explain)
(3)
(4, □ Recreation: Swimming I 1 Fishing I 1 Other
(5) Other uses (explain)
(explain).
*Stream definitions: See Glossary in Appendix C.
89
Watershed Assessment (Continued)
10. Water use impairments (watercourses): Are there water use impairments or restrictions of the watercourses in the watershed? Is
there something "wrong" with the water? Has it been degraded by acid mine drainage, industrial discharge, etc.?
□ no.D Yes. If Yes, explain. The impairment(s) is/are due to:
□ I I I I Inadequate or overloaded
Agricultural runoff I — I Logging runoff I — I wastewater treatment facilities
□ Industrial discharge Urban or other construction Irrigation problems
□ Mining runoff Failing septic tanks Other (explain)
If the impairment(s) is/are due to a combination of factors, what is your best estimate of the relative contribution of agricultural
operations to the watercourse impairment(s)?
CH Total LJ About half
d Most d Small portion
11. Names of major ponds or lakes
12. Names of minor ponds or lakes
13. Sizes of individual ponds or lakes in acres
14. Primary uses of pond or lake water:
(!)□ Domestic drinking water supply.
(2) Industrial water supply.
(3) Agricultural water supply: Irrigation Livestock Other (explain).
(4) Recreation: Swimming Fishing Other (explain)
(5) I 1 Other uses (explain)
15. Water use impairment (ponds or lakes): Are there any water use impairments or restrictions of the ponds or lakes in the
watershed? Is there something "wrong" with the water? Has it been degraded by acid mine drainage, industrial discharge, etc?
Yes. If Yes, explain. The impairment(s) is/are due to:
□ I I I I Inadequate or overloaded
Agricultural runoff I 1 Logging runoff I — I wastewater treatment facilities
□ Industrial discharge Urban or other construction Irrigation problems
□ Mining runoff Failing septic tanks Other (explain)
90
If the impairment s) is/are due to a combination of factors, what is your best estimate of the relative contribution of agricultural
operations to the pond/lake impairment(s)?
d Total d About half
d Most d Small portion
Land uses in watershed: (check appropriate categories)
1. Farming: I 1 Pasture /grazing Dryland cropping Irrigated cropping Woods
Other (explain)
2. Urban areas: Homes Stores Other (explain)
3. Industrial areas: Factories Small shops Other (explain)
4. Mining: Surface d Deep d Other (explain)
□ Clearcut Selective cut Other (explain)
5. Logging:
6. Other uses (explain) (e.g.. sanitary landfill)
9i
On-Farm (Ranch) Water Assessment
Surface Watercourses
1 . Number of watercourses (streams or drainage ditches)
□ Perennial Intermittent □
2. Types of watercourses: I 1 Perennial I 1 Intermittent I 1 Ephemeral. (If applicable, check more than one).
3. Location of watercourses on property*
Wetlands
1. Acres of wetlands
2. Location of wetlands on property*
□ Sediment sink □ Water storage Flood control □
Other (explain)
3. Uses: Sediment sink l_l Water storage L_J Flood control L_l Irrigation
□
Ponds
1 . Farm ponds: d Rare d Common Abundant (Number )
2. Other water bodies: Number ; Surface area (natural lakes and impounded bodies).
3. Uses
□ no.D Yes. If
4. Are any of the uses impaired? I — I No. I — I Yes. If yes, what type of impairment?
5. Location on property*
Ground Water
: EH None O Rare D Common □
1 . Number of springs (wet weather or year-round): I 1 None I 1 Rare I 1 Common I — I Abundant
2. Total number of wells
3. Population served
4. Primary uses of ground water:
□ Domestic water supply □ Industrial water supply Recreation
□ Fish and aquatic life Irrigation
□ Livestock watering & wildlife □ Other (explain)
5. Number of sinkholes on or near property: CZI None CZ1 Rare d Common Abundant
6. Location of ground water features on property*
*Optional: If feasible and not already present, add these locations to the farm's map.
92
Part 2: Field Sheet Selection of Nonpoint Source Pollutants
Watercourses
Evaluator's Name Date.
Location
State/County Township Range
Watershed (basin) Subwatershed .
(if applicable)
Watercourse location
Note: If there is a natural or constructed watercourse on or near the farmer or rancher's property', complete this form for a preliminary
decision about nonpoint source pollutants. If your answer is "Can't Tell" or "Yes," you must complete the field sheets for that
particular pollutant.
Probable Cause
1. Is the watercourse bottom coated with sediment? Or is there evidence that the watercourse bed is aggrading or degrading? Or has
flooding increased over the last several years? Or is there evidence of bank sloughing? Or is the water turbid or muddy after a
storm event?
d CAN'T TELL LJ YES d
NO (Field Sheets 1A, IB) Sediment
2. Do you see or smell evidence of manure in or along the watercourse? Or is there evidence of bank trampling? Or is the water-
course bottom coated black or with a whitish or grayish "cottony" mold?
□ CAN'T TELL □ yes □ NO (Field Sheets 2A. 2Bi. 2B 2 ) Animal Wastes
3. At low flow is the color of the water greenish? Or is there an increase in rooted aquatic vegetation or seasonal algal blooms that
can be linked to the timing of fertilizer application?
□ CANT TELL □ yes □
CANT TELL I 1 YES I 1 NO (Field Sheets 3A, 3B) Nutrients
4. Is there evidence of leaf-burn or a sudden dieback of vegetation that does not seem to be due to natural causes? Has this happened
after pesticide application Or has fish productivity declined or a fishery been degraded from cold or warm water sport fish to
predominately rough (trash) fish? Or has a fish kill occurred in an apparently fertile watershed? Or do fish avoid this particular
reach of the watercourse or exhibit strange or erratic behavior such as gulping for air. swimming in circles, jumping out of water,
etc?
□ CANT TELL □ yes □
NO (Field Sheets 4A. 4B) Pesticides
5. Is the watercourse reach located in a naturally occurring salt-laden geologic area and far downstream from the headwaters? Or is
there evidence of white salt crust on the watercourse banks?
□ CAN'T TELL □ yes □
CANT TELL I 1 YES I 1 NO (Field Sheets 5A, 5B,. 5B 2 ) Salts
After completing this preliminary decision about pollutants, complete the appropriate field sheets.
93
Water Bodies (Ponds or Lakes)
If there is a natural or constructed pond or lake on or near the farmer or rancher's property, complete this form for a preliminary decision
about nonpoint source pollutants. If your answer is "Can't tell" or "Yes," you must complete the field sheets for that particular pollutant.
Water body location Probable Cause
1. Is there evidence of sediment from field erosion or bank erosion getting into the pond from rills or gullies; muddiness after a large
storm? Or has the pond changed in size over the years? (Pond surface area may become smaller or larger as sedimentation
occurs.)
□ CAN T TELL □ yes □
NO (Field Sheets 1A, IB) Sediment
2. Is there visual or olfactory evidence of manure in or around the pond? Or is the pond covered with an organic ooze or black
mayonnaise-like coating?
□ CAN'T TELL □ yes □ NO (Field Sheets 2A, 2B,, 2B 2 ) Annual Waste
3. Have there been seasonal algal blooms or fish kills or evidence of oxygen depletion (fish gulping for air near the surface of the
water at dawn)? Or is there evidence of greener, more robust vegetation along the pond edge? Or is the pond choked with vege-
tation?
□ CAN'T TELL □ yes □
NO (Field Sheets 3A, 3B) Nutrients
Is there evidence of leaf-burn or a sudden dieback of vegetation that does not seem to be due to natural causes? Has this occurred
after pesticide application? Or has fish productivity declined or a fish kill occurred in an apparendy fertile watershed with good
pond management practices? Or has abnormal fish behavior been observed, such as uncoordinated movements, convulsive darting
movements, erratic swimming up and down or in a small circle, sluggish movements alternating with jumping out of the water, or
difficulty in respiration?
d CAN'T TELL d YES d
NO (Field Sheets 4A, 4B) Pesticides
5. Is the pond or lake located in a naturally occurring salt-laden geologic area and far downstream from the headwaters? Or has there
been a significant amount of irrigation drainage to the pond and a need to increase the number of evaporation ponds in a given
area? Or are pond shorelines covered with white, crusty salt deposits?
□ CANT TELL □ yes □ NO (Field Sheets 5A, 5Bi, 5B 2 ) Salts
After completing this preliminary decision about pollutants, complete the appropriate field sheets.
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